Mav̋ea (also known as Mavea or Mafea or Mavia) is an Oceanic language spoken on Mavea Island in Vanuatu, off the eastern coast of Espiritu Santo. It belongs to the North–Central Vanuatu linkage of Southern Oceanic. The total population of the island is approximately 172, with only 34 fluent speakers of the Mav̋ea language reported in 2008.[G-2008 1]
There are 94 languages in the North Vanuatu linkage, including Mav̋ea. The closest linguistic relative to Mav̋ea, sharing a little over 70% of cognates, is Tutuba. Following Tutuba, Aore, South Malok, Araki, and Tangoa are the next closest relatives.[G-2011 1]
Language endangerment
Mav̋ea is a moribund language and there are many factors as to why this is.
One factor would be the arrival and Christianization by the Seventh-day Adventist and Church of Christ missionaries in 1839. Only 16% of the population can speak Mav̋ea. These native speakers of Mav̋ea belong to Generation 1, 2, and 3[further explanation needed] which ranges from the ages of 20–80 years old. Those born after 1980 ("Generation 4") are less fluent. Commonly, this generation is not taught the language, because the language is inactive and not used in any new domain.[G-2011 1]
Mav̋ea is not used very commonly outside of the home; in particular, it is not used in school, which reduces the younger speakers' exposure to the language. Most speakers do not feel concerned with the possible loss of the Mav̋ea language.[G-2011 1]
Bislama, the national lingua franca of Vanuatu, is used more frequently. This creole is the first language for many people in Vanuatu who live in the city. It is used for business, religious sacraments, politics, and is seen as a way to move upward in society.[G-2011 1]
Linguolabial consonants are represented using the corresponding labial consonant with a double acute accent on top: p̋[t̼]; v̋[ð̼]; m̋[n̼].[1] (This is a slight variation compared with the convention, shared by other Vanuatu languages, of transcribing linguolabials using two dots, respectively as p̈; v̈; m̈.)
The retroflex[ɖ] is represented in the orthography as d.
Grammar
Pronouns
There are both free and bound pronouns. Free pronouns are common in many Pacific languages. These free pronouns do not change for gender, but shows numerical differences, including singular, plural, dual, or paucal.[G-2011 1]
For example:
/mo/ = he/she/it (third person singular subject)
He eats taro. = /mo-an pete/
Proper nouns
Proper nouns includes personal names, vocatives, relational terms, and locatives. They do not proceed an article and can not be used with a determiner. To show gender distinction, males use the prefix /mol-/. For females, the prefix /vo-/ or /va-/ was added.[G-2011 1]
Common nouns
Similar to the proper nouns, there are both bound and free common nouns. Both can be used in an argument, be quantified with a marker, be modified with a determiner, be the head of a relative clause, and be questioned with "who" or "what". Bound common nouns are separated into nouns of kinship, body parts, bodily functions, and whole part relations. Also shows possessives.[G-2011 1]
Intransitive verbs are used when the subject has no direct object receiving the action.[G-2011 1]
Adverbs
There are two kinds of adverbs: phrasal adverbs and sentential adverbs. Sententail adverbs take up the entire sentence and appear after or before the verb's core argument. For example: to show frequency, /te pong/ meaning "sometimes" is used as a sentential adverb.
Spatial adverbs are used to show the location of the speaker and the direction the speaker is speaking towards. For example: konaro means "here, at speaker's location." This is common in many Pacific languages.[G-2011 1]
Reduplication
Mav̋ea shows partial reduplication in its grammar. Reduplication is used to show emphasis. For example: sua means "to paddle" and suosua means "to paddle intensely". Sometimes when using reduplication, the vowels can change. Usually the "a" changes to "o" or "e".[G-2011 1]
Adjectives
Adjectives can only be used as noun modifiers. There both adjectives as independent lexical items and also adjectives pulled from transitive verbs by using reduplication. For example: pulua is "paint" and "ima pulpulu" means "painted house".[G-2011 1]
There are four attested demonstrative pronouns in Mav̋ea: aro, nel(e), maro, and male.[G-2011 2]Aro and nel(e) can also function as demonstrative determiners, and aro specifically only rarely appears as a pronoun,[G-2011 2] as in:
Mo-ṽe
3SG-make
mo-pal
3SG-like
aro
here
[ma
COMP
mo-pailu]
3SG-bent
Mo-ṽe mo-pal aro [ma mo-pailu]
3SG-make 3SG-like here COMP 3SG-bent
'He makes (it) like this one here that is bent'[G-2011 2]
Maro ('this one') is used to refer to something nearby the speaker, and has the plural form maror,[G-2011 2] which is formed by affixing the plural suffix-re:[G-2011 3]
Or
maybe
me
FUT
ro
then
ka-var
1SG.IRR-talk
sur
about
maro
this.one
ma
COMP
matua=ku
right=1SG.POSS
mo-adia
3SG-first
Or me ro ka-var sur maro ma matua=ku mo-adia
maybe FUT then 1SG.IRR-talk about this.one COMP right=1SG.POSS 3SG-first
'Maybe I will talk about this one that (is) on my right first'[G-2011 3]
Ma
COMP
pula-ira
CLF-3PL
maror
these.ones
i
LIG
ṽat.
four
Ma pula-ira maror i ṽat.
COMP CLF-3PL these.ones LIG four
'(The ones) that (are) theirs (are) these four ones.'[G-2011 3]
Male ('that one') on the other hand is used when speaking of something that is distant to the speaker,[G-2011 2] both literally, as in
Male
that.one
m̃atan
COMP
me
FUT
ra-lsu
3PL-hit
mate=i=o
dead=TR=2SG
Male m̃atan me ra-lsu mate=i=o
that.one COMP FUT 3PL-hit dead=TR=2SG
'That one (was) for the purpose that they would kill you'[G-2011 4]
And metaphorically, in order to distance the speaker from the referent,[G-2011 3] as in
Na
but
vatavata
woman
le
DET
mo-pelmel
3SG-like.this
paingur,
stubborn
male
that.one
me
FUT
i-l-ṽe
3SG.IRR-IMPF-make
Tomy
Tomy
pelmel
like.this
Na vatavata le mo-pelmel paingur, male me i-l-ṽe Tomy pelmel
but woman DET 3SG-like.this stubborn that.one FUT 3SG.IRR-IMPF-make Tomy like.this
'But this woman is stubborn like this, that one will be making Tomy the same'[G-2011 3]
Malere is the plural form of male,[G-2011 2] and like maror is formed by affixing the plural -re:[G-2011 3]
Maro and male are both formed by combining the complementizerma- and a locative adverbial; aro for the former, and ale for the latter.[G-2011 3]
Determiners
In addition to demonstrative pronouns, Mav̋ea also has three demonstrative determiners: nele, (a)ro, and nor(o),[G-2011 5] although of these only nor(o) is not attested as a pronoun in addition to its role as a demonstrative determiner.[G-2011 2]
The three-way demonstrative system common to Oceanic Languages[2] is not present in Mav̋ean demonstrative determiners,[G-2011 5] occurring instead in the locative adverbs of the language.[G-2011 6] The demonstrative determiners of Mav̋ea encode both spatial and temporal proximity to either the speaker,[G-2011 5] as in
'Its leaves go up and appear here on top.'[G-2011 7]
The plural forms neler(e), ror, and noror are formed by affixing what is likely a reduced form of the plural word re[G-2011 7].
Nele, along with its plural form neler(e), is formed in part by the specific definite articlele.[G-2011 7]
Nor(o), and its plural form noror, is actually made up in part by a cut down form of the third demonstrative determiner, (a)ro, while nele is not.[G-2011 7] Interestingly, the two demonstrative determiners which contain aro, that is nor(o) and (a)ro itself, are also the two demonstrative determiners which serve double duty as demonstrative pronouns,[G-2011 2] in addition to being used as locational adverbs, a function never assigned to nel(e)(re).[G-2011 7]
Additionally, one of the other demonstrative pronouns, maro, also has aro as one of its constituents.[G-2011 3]
Demonstrative determiners can refer to a location in both time and space, but the spatial location is often discourse-related, rather than speaker-related,[G-2011 7] as in the following example, where aro is used to refer anaphorically to a party (anana) that has previously been mentioned in the text:
This use is sometimes called the "tracking use".[G-2011 7]Ror, nor(o)(r), and nelere all also have anaphoric uses, as displayed in the following examples, where the noun phrase referents occurring prior to the demonstrative have each been mentioned previously:[G-2011 8]
Ro
then
me
FUT
ro
then
tamlese
old
ror
here.PL
i
LIG
rua…
two
Ro me ro tamlese ror i rua…
then FUT then old here.PL LIG two
'Then, these two men here…'
Ra-l-an
3PL-IMPF-eat
ineler
thing.PL
nelere
these.PL
Ra-l-an ineler nelere
3PL-IMPF-eat thing.PL these.PL
'They are eating these things here.'
Inor
thing.PL
nor
here.now
me
FUT
i-tuen
3SG.IRR-help
nno
2SG
Inor nor me i-tuen nno
thing.PL here.now FUT 3SG.IRR-help 2SG
'These things here will help you.'
The demonstrative determiners of Mav̋ea follow the head noun when used adnominally, a pattern which is the norm in oceanic languages, though by no means universal.[2] Examples of this include:
Tam̃a-n
father-CONS
navaisesea
child
aro
this.here
mo-m̃ata.
3SG-dead
Tam̃a-n navaisesea aro mo-m̃ata.
father-CONS child this.here 3SG-dead
'The father of this child here is dead.'[G-2011 7]
Locative adverbs are a class of sentential adverb, modifying entire sentences, and as such occur either subsequent to the verb's core argument,[G-2011 9] as shown in:
There are two sets of locative adverbs in Mav̋ea,[G-2011 9] all members of which serve as spatial deictics. There is the A-set, so named because all of its members begin with [a], and the K-set, so named because each of its members begins with [ko]. They form a six-way system based on proximity to the hearer, and to the speaker, as well as relative direction (up, down, or across)[G-2011 9]
'there, away from both interlocutors, but closer to hearer than speaker'
atu
~
konatu
'over there, away from both interlocutors'
atisi(vo)
~
konatisi(vo)
'over there down, far away from both interlocutors'
atisa
~
konatisa
'over there up, far away from both interlocutors'
atiṽa
~
konatiṽa
'over there across, far away from both interlocutors'
Atisi(vo), atisa, and atiṽa, as well as their K-set equivalents konatisi(vo), konatisa, and konatiṽa, are likely derived from the form atu (or konatu for the K-set), compounded with a movement verb like si(vo) ('go down'), sa ('go up'), or ṽa ('go'):[G-2011 6]
Nno
2SG
ko-to
2SG-stay
aro
here
nao
1SG
ka-on
1SG.IRR-look
ka-ṽa
1SG.IRR-go
konatiṽa.
over.there
Ka-val
1SG.IRR-pass
kil
look
ṽa
go
na
LOC
vovono
REDbush
konatu.
over.there
Nno ko-to aro nao ka-on ka-ṽa konatiṽa. Ka-val kil ṽa na vovono konatu.
2SG 2SG-stay here 1SG 1SG.IRR-look 1SG.IRR-go over.there 1SG.IRR-pass look go LOC REDbush over.there
'You stay here, I will go look over there. I will pass towards the bush over there.'
3PL-leave there ai sar then 3PL-go.up there panpan
'They left there, 'Ai sar', then they went up there, 'Panpan'.'
'Soon after I felt something touching my leg here.'
Speakers can emphasise the distance in the forms atisi(vo), atisa, and atiṽa, as well as their K-set forms konatisi(vo), konatisa, and konatiṽa by producing them with a long [t], e.g.: [a.'t:i.si].[G-2011 6]
There is no easily discernible semantic difference between the A-set and the K-set, however some members of the A-set may also serve as demonstratives,[G-2011 11] as in:
Mo-ṽe
3SG-make
mo-pal
3SG-like
aro
here
[ma
COMP
mo-pailu].
3SG-bent
Mo-ṽe mo-pal aro[ma mo-pailu].
3SG-make 3SG-like here COMP 3SG-bent
'He makes (it) like (this one) here which is bent.'
which is not attested in any member of the K-set.
The spatial and temporal adverbs aro, aine, and kon(a)ro, as well as the demonstrative determiner nor(o), can be juxtaposed with a noun in order to form an adverbial predicate,[G-2011 4] as in
Ro,
then
avona-n
end-CONS
ululdunia
story
aro.
here.this
Ro, avona-n ululdunia aro.
then end-CONS story here.this
'Then the end of the story (is) here.' Or 'Then, this (is) the end of the story.'
Nna
3SG
ne
FOC
aine.
there
Nna ne aine.
3SG FOC there
'It (is) there.'
'The third one (is) here, the fourth one (is) here.'
Morphology
Personal pronouns in Mav̋ea do not inflect for case or gender, but do show number (singular, dual, paucal, plural). First person non-singular has an inclusive/exclusive distinction. Independent personal pronouns are not obligatory, but are used for emphasis, contrast or focus.[G-2008 4]
Singular
Dual
Paucal
Plural
1st person
inclusive
na(o)
darua/ô
datol
(n)ida
exclusive
kam̋arua/o
kam̋atol
kam̋am
2nd person
nno
kamruo/a
kamtol
kam̋im
3rd person
nna
rarua/o
ratol
nira
me
FUT
ro
then
nno
2SG
me
FUT
ko
2SG
-l
-IMPF
-suruv
-sleep
atano,
ground
na
but
nao
1SG
me
FUT
ro
then
ka
1SG.IRR
suruv
-sleep
aul
above
pere
branch
-n
-CONS
vuae
tree
me ro nno me ko -l -suruv atano, na nao me ro ka suruv aul pere -n vuae
FUT then 2SG FUT 2SG -IMPF -sleep ground but 1SG FUT then 1SG.IRR -sleep above branch -CONS tree
"You, you will sleep on the ground, but I, I will sleep in the tree"
Bound pronouns
Bound pronouns are obligatory at the beginning of a predicate phrase. Only 1SG and 3SG inflect for mood.[G-2008 5]
The Mav̋ea counting system is very similar to other Proto Oceanic languages, especially numbers 1 through 5, and 10.[G-2011 1]
tea
rua
tol(u)
vat(i)
lima
marava
rave rua
rattol(u)
rappat(i)
anavul(u)
Possession
Mav̋ea distinguishes direct and indirect possession. Direct possessive constructions nouns take a bound possessive clitic. On the other hand, indirect possession is expressed by the presence of a classifier to which a possessive clitic is suffixed.[G-2011 12]
Direct possession
Direct possession is expressed by a possessive clitic attached to the noun when the possessor is not expressed as a Noun Phrase (NP). Alternatively, if no suffix exists for the person and number of the possessor, the nouns are followed by an independent pronoun.[G-2011 12]
The semantic classes of nouns participating in direct possessive constructions, include, body parts, and bodily functions, kinship terms, articles of clothing, and household goods.[G-2011 12]
Table of Possessive Clitics
Singular
Dual
Paucal/trial
Plural
1st person
inclusive
-ku
darua/o
datol
-(i)da
exclusive
-mamrua/o
-mamtol
-mam
2nd person
-m
-mrua/o
-mtol
-mim
3rd person
-n(a)
-rarua/o
ratol
-(i)ra
A noun, which is directly possessed, takes a possessive clitic matching the possessor's features.[G-2011 13]
For example:
Ka-deo
1SG.IRR-defecate
mo-adia
3SG-first
ro
then
me
FUT
ko-on
2SG-look
tae=ku.
excrement=lSG.POSS
Ka-deo mo-adia ro me ko-on tae=ku.
1SG.IRR-defecate 3SG-first then FUT 2SG-look excrement=lSG.POSS
'I will defecate first, then you will look at my excrement.'
and
This third person singular possessive clitic, pronounced as [na], is suffixed to the noun 'Laloa' for 'saliva'.
If a full NP expresses the possessor, the possessee takes the construct suffix –n, or can be pronounces [na], although this construct suffix is a homophony of the possessive clitic –n and –na the distribution is different as displayed in the following examples;[G-2011 13]
Note that the case of Full NP, the possessee precedes the possessor
child-CONS dove 3SG-go.up 3SG-sit LOC head-CONS fowl
'Dove's child went up and sat on Fowl's head.[G-2011 14]
Possession is recursive, in the following example, the noun 'vulu' which is possessed by the noun 'vanatu' which in turn is possessed by John, therefore both nouns a suffixed with –[n].
Nouns in indirect possession constructions do not take a possessive clitic, they require a classifier to which a possessive clitic (or construct suffix) is attached.[G-2011 13]
Intonation is used to distinguish yes–no questions because there is no syntactic way to do so. There are also tag questions which uses the negative tag /te modere/ at the end. In English, /te modere/ means "or not".[G-2011 1]
Some monoclausal content questions include:
ape = where
ingese = when
ise = who
ivisa = how much/many
matai = for what reason
matan = why
sa = what
sava = which/what kind?
se = which
sur sa = about/for what
Negation
Sentential negation is expressed with the bound prefix /sopo/ and appears right after the subject agreement prefix.[G-2011 1] The order is subject → negation → verb.
mo
3SG
-sopo-
NEG
rongo
see
=
=
a
3SG
mo -sopo- rongo = a
3SG NEG see = 3SG
he didn't see him
Sometimes /sopo/ can be shorten to /po/.
na
1SG
-po-
NEG
sasa
work
na -po- sasa
1SG NEG work
I don't work.
When the subject agreement marker is absent, the bare negation marker jumps to the front.
Sopo
NEG
te
some
ta-mavea...
from-Mav̋ea
Sopo te ta-mavea...
NEG some from-Mav̋ea
There is not one Mav̋ea man...
To show the aspectual meaning "not yet", /lo/ is added to the negation marker /sopo/. This refers to events that have not happened yet but are likely to in the future. Added to the end of this form of negation is /pa/ which means "still" or "yet".
nno ko
2SG
sopo
NEG
-l-
IMPF
on
look
diu
crab
pa?
yet?
{nno ko} sopo -l- on diu pa?
2SG NEG IMPF look crab yet?
you haven't seen a coconut crab yet?
When combined with /me/ the negation changes into "not anymore, no more".
mo-sopo
3SG-NEG
-
-
me
IT
-
-
l
IMPF
-
-
suruv
sleep
mo-sopo - me - l - suruv
3SG-NEG - IT - IMPF - sleep
She does not sleep anymore.
Equative clauses are shown by adding the negative marker /sopo/ to the subject marker for third person singular /mo-/. Mosopo meaning " it is/was/not."
Ko-v
2SG-say
mo-sopo
3SG-NEG
nno.
2SG
Ko-v mo-sopo nno.
2SG-say 3SG-NEG 2SG
You said it wasn't you.
Negative locational predicates are similar to equative clauses, by adding the locational marker /na/ to the equative clause /mosopo/.
Mo-sopo
3SG-NEG
na
LOC
ono.
sand.
Mo-sopo na ono.
3SG-NEG LOC sand.
It is not on the sand.
Notes
References from
Guérin, Valérie (2008). Discovering Mavea: Grammar, texts, and lexicon. Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics, University of Hawai'i.
