Zaparoan (also Sáparoan, Záparo, Zaparoano, Zaparoana) is an endangeredlanguage family of Peru and Ecuador with fewer than 100 speakers. Zaparoan speakers seem to have been very numerous before the arrival of the Europeans. However, their groups have been decimated by imported diseases and warfare, and only a handful of them have survived.
Languages
There were 39 Zaparoan-speaking tribes at the beginning of the 20th century,[1] every one of them presumably using its own distinctive language or dialect. Most of them have become extinct before being recorded, however, and we have information only about nine of them.
Aushiri and Omurano are included by Stark (1985). Aushiri is generally accepted as Zaparoan, but Omurano remains unclassified in other descriptions.
Mason (1950)
Internal classification of the Zaparoan languages by Mason (1950):[2]
Zaparoan
Coronado group
Coronado (Ipapiza, Hichachapa, Kilinina)
Tarokeo
Chudavina (?)
Miscuara (?)
Oa (Oaki, Deguaca, Santa Rosina)
Andoa group
Andoa
Guallpayo
Guasaga
Murato
Gae (Siaviri)
Semigae
Aracohor
Mocosiohor
Usicohor
Ichocomohor
Itoromohor
Maithiore
Comacor (?)
Iquito (Amacacora, Kiturran, Puca-Uma)
Iquito
Maracana (Cawarano ?)
Auve
Asaruntoa (?)
Záparo group
Muegano
Curaray
Matagen
Yasuni
Manta
Nushino
Rotuno
Supinu
Genetic relations
The relationship of Zaparoan languages with other language families of the area is uncertain. It is generally considered isolated. Links with other languages or families have been proposed but none has been widely accepted so far.
Payne (1984) and Kaufman (1994) suggest a relationship with the Yaguan family in a Sáparo–Yáwan stock, contrary to Greenberg's (1987) classification.
Swadesh (1954) also groups Zaparoan with Yaguan within his Zaparo–Peba phylum.
Greenberg (1987) places Zaparoan together with the Cahuapanan family into a Kahuapana–Zaparo grouping within his larger Andean phylum, but this is generally rejected by historical linguists.
Kaufman (1994) notes that Tovar (1984) includes the unclassifiedTaushiro under Zaparoan following the tentative opinion of SSILA.
Stark (1985) includes the extinct Omurano under Zaparoan. Gordon (2005) follows Stark.
Mason (1950: 236–238) groups Bora–Witoto, Tupian, and Zaparoan together as part of a proposed Macro-Tupí-Guaranían family.[2]
Language contact
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Omurano, Arawakan, Quechuan, and Peba-Yagua language families due to contact.[3]
Family features
Pronouns
Zaparoan languages distinguishes between inclusive and exclusive we and consider the first person singular as the default person. A rare feature is the existence of two sets of personal pronouns with different syntactic values according to the nature of the sentence. Active pronouns are subject in independent clauses and object in dependent ones, while passive pronouns are subject in independent clauses and passive in dependent ones :
Thus
(Arabela) Cuno maaji cua masuu-nuju-quiaa na mashaca cua ratu-nu-ra. (this woman is always inviting me to drink masato[4] where cua is object in the main clause and subject in the subordinate one.
(Záparo)/tʃanaitʌkwaha/ (you will fall) cp /tajkwakopanitʃatʃataikwano/ (I don't want to go with you)[5]
Personal pronouns in Zaparoan languages
Zaparo
Arabela
Iquito
Conambo
1st person
singular
ko / kwi / k-
janiya / -nijia / cua cuo- / cu- / qui
cu / quí / quíija
kwiɣia / ku
plural
excl
kana /kaʔno
canaa
cana / canáaja
incl
pa /p-
pajaniya / paa / pa / po- pue- / -pue
p'++ja
2nd person
singular
tʃa / tʃ- / k-/ ki
quiajaniya / quiaa / quia / quio- -quia / cero
quia / quiáaja
kyaχa
plural
kina / kiʔno
niajaniya / niaa / nia / nio-
3rd person
singular
naw / no / n-ˑ
nojuaja / na / ne- / no- -Vri / -quinio
anúu / anúuja
plural
na
nojori / na / no-
naá / nahuaáca
Numerals
Gloss
Zaparoan languages
Zaparo
Andoa
Arabela
Iquito
1
nuquaqui
nikínjo
niquiriyatu
núquiica
2
namisciniqui
ishki
caapiqui
cuúmi
3
haimuckumarachi
kímsa
jiuujianaraca
s++saramaj+táami
4
ckaramaitacka
Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for Zaparoan language varieties.[6]
gloss
Záparo
Conambo
Andoa
Simigae
Chiripuno
Iquito
Cahuarano
one
nokoáki
nukaki
nikíño
nóki
núki
two
namesániki
tarkaningu
ishki
koːmi
kómu
head
ku-anák
ku-anaka
pan-aka
p-anák
p-anák
pá-nak
eye
nu-námits
ku-iyamixa
pa-namix
henizy
namixía
puí-nami
poí-nami
woman
itumu
maxi
maxi
mãxi
muesaxí
itémo
fire
unámisok
umáni
ománi
omani
inámi
inámi
sun
yánuk
yañakwa
apánamu
poánámu
pananú
núnami
nianamí
star
narika
narexa
arixya
arishya
narexa
narexa
maize
sáuk
tasáuku
dzáuku
sakoó
shakárok
shekárok
house
itü
ité
ki-t'a
dahápu
íta
íta
white
ushíksh
ushikya
ishi-sinwa
makúshini
mosotín
musiténa
Proto-language
Proto-Zaparoan
Proto-Záparoan
Reconstruction of
Zaparoan languages
Proto-Záparoan reconstructions by de Carvalho (2013):[7]
gloss
Proto-Záparoan
‘bee, wasp’
*ahapaka
‘stick’
*amaka
‘to kill’
*amo
‘woman's sibling’
*ana-
‘cloud, smoke’
*anahaka
‘head’
*anaka
‘pain’
*anaw
‘to come’
*ani-
‘to cut down’
*anu-
‘to talk’
*ati-
‘to eat’
*atsa-
‘tooth’
*ika-
‘to go’
*ikwa-
‘foot’
*ino-
‘benefactive’
*-iɾa
‘fat, large (for fruits)’
*iɾisi
‘house’
*ita
‘urine’
*isa-
‘negative nominalization’
*-jaw
‘number suffix’
*-ka
‘hair; feather’
*kaha-
‘1st person, excl. plural’
*kana
‘to cut (hair)’
*kə-
‘raw’
*maha
‘to cook’
*mahi
‘to sleep’
*makə-
‘guts’
*mara
‘to tie’
*maraw-
‘to escape, to flee’
*masi-
‘to do’
*mi-
‘rotten’
*moka
‘3rd person plural’
*na-
‘hill’
*naku-
‘blood’
*nana-ka
‘3rd person singular’
*naw-
‘masculine, singular’
*-nu
‘infinitive’
*-nu
‘to want/like; love’
*pani-
‘fish; stingray?’
*sapi
‘to taste (food)’
*sani-
‘lice’
*sukana
‘bad’
*səsa
‘to lick’
*tamə-
‘foreigner, stranger; to hate?’
*tawə-
‘to listen’
*tawhi-
‘feminine, singular’
*-tu
‘causative suffix’
*-tə
‘where’
*tə-
‘to rest; to be new’
*tsami-
‘rain’
*umaru
Citations
^La famille linguistique Zaparo, H. Beuchat and P. Rivet – Journal de la société des américanistes – Année 1908 lien Volume 5 pp. 235–249
^de Carvalho, F. O. (2013). On Záparoan as a valid genetic unity: Preliminary correspondences and the status of Omurano. In Revista Brasileira de Linguística Antropológica. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 91-116. Accessed from DiACL, 9 February 2020.
General and cited references
Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The languages of the Andes. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press.
Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-509427-1.
Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). "Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more". In D. L. Payne (ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN0-292-70414-3.
Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). "The native languages of South America". In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (eds.), Atlas of the World's Languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.
Payne, Doris (1984). "Evidence for a Yaguan-Zaparoan Connection". In D. Derbyshire (ed.), SIL working papers: University of North Dakota session (Vol. 28; pp. 131–156).
Stark, Louisa R. (1985). "Indigenous languages of lowland Ecuador: History and current status". In H. E. M. Klein & L. R. Stark (eds.), South American Indian languages: Retrospect and prospect (pp. 157–193). Austin: University of Texas Press.
Suárez, Jorge. (1974). "South American Indian languages". In Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed., Vol. 17, pp. 105–112).
Swadesh, Morris. (1959). Mapas de clasificación lingüística de México y las Américas. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Tovar, Antonio; & Larrucea de Tovar, Consuelo (1984). Catálogo de las lenguas de América de Sur (new edition). Madrid: Gredos.