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Proto-Cahuapanan
Proto-Cahuapanan
Proto-Kawapanan
Reconstruction of	Cahuapanan languages

Cahuapanan
Cahuapanan
Kawapanan
Geographic; distribution	Peru
Linguistic classification	Macro-Jibaro ? Cahuapanan;
Subdivisions	Chayahuita; Jebero;
Language codes
Glottolog	cahu1265

The Cahuapanan languages are a language family spoken in the Amazon basin of northern Peru. They include two languages, Chayahuita and Jebero, which are spoken by more than 11,300 people. Chayahuita is spoken by most of that number, but Jebero is almost extinct.

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Kechua, Arawak, Kandoshi, Pukina, and Karib language families due to contact.^[1]

Varieties

Chayahuita or Chawi (also known or rendered as Balsapuertino, Cahuapa, Chayabita, Chayawita, Chayhuita, Tshaahui, Paranapura, Shayabit)
- Chayahuita dialect
- Cahuapana dialect
Jebero (also known or rendered as Chebero, Xebero, Xihuila)

The extinct language Maynas can be identified as close to Chawi.^[2]

Other Cahuapanan varieties that are listed by Loukotka (1968):^[3]

Yamorai - spoken on the Sillai River in Loreto Department
Ataguate - extinct language of the same region, once spoken on the Aipena River and around Lake Atagua (unattested)
Pamdabegue - once spoken on the Aipena River and Paranapura River in Loreto Department (unattested)
Miguira (Shuensampi, Miquira, Mikirá^[4]) - extinct language once spoken in the single village of Maucallacta on the Paranapura River

Proto-language

Rojas-Berscia (2019)

Rojas-Berscia (2019) gives the following forms for Proto-Kawapanan, along with their respective Shawi, and Shiwilu reflexes.^[5]

gloss	Proto-Kawapanan	Shawi	Shiwilu
agouti	*îtɘʔ	ihtɘʔ	ɘttʃɘk
Aipena River	aîpina ~ îpina	aipina	ɘrpina
anona	aɘ ~ ɘ	ɘ-(ʃa), aɘ	ɘk-pi
apangora crab	*sîwa	ʃiwa	sɘrwa
armadillo	*tiʔlɘ(ʔ)	tɘʔnɘ-ʃa(ʔ)wɘ	tʃiʔlɘk
bat	*isɘʔ	isɘʔ	iʃɘk
belly	*yuʔ	yoʔ	ð̞u ʔ
bird	iLansîʔ, ilansîʔ	inansi-raʔ, ina(i)nʃi-ra ~ inai-ra	ilansɘrʔ
bite	*ki-tɘ(ʔ)-	kɘ-tɘ-	ki-tɘk-
blood	*wɘLa-yɘʔ	wɘna-iʔ	wɘkla-ð̞ek
boa	*kupi-wan	kopi-wan	kupiwan
boquichico	*wankî	wanki	wankɘr-tʃɘk
breadfruit	*pîtu	pito	pɘttʃu
brother (of a woman)	*yuʔyuʔ	yoʔyoʔ	yuyuʔ
burn (vt.)	*yiʔsîʔ-	iʔʃi- 'dip into salt’	ð̞iʔsɘrʔ-
carry	*piʔpɘ(ʔ)-	pɘʔpɘ-	piʔpɘk-
chest	*tiʔ-tɘʔ	tɘʔ-tɘʔ ‘breast (of birds)’	tʃiʔ-tɘk
choro monkey	*suluʔ	soroʔ	suluʔ
cicada	*kaʼyula	kaʔyora	kað̞ula
condor	*tamɘ	tamɘ	tamɘk
coto monkey	*luʔluʔ	noʔnoʔ	luʔluʔ
cover:CL	*-tɘʔ	-tɘʔ	-tɘk
cunchi	*tuʔwan	toʔwan	tuʔwan
cunchi (fish sp.)	ikîa-La ~ ikîla-La	ikia-na < *îkîa-{l/n}a	ikɘλa-la
cunchi, tullu uma	*tuʔwan	toʔwan	tuʔwan
curassow	*iʼsa	iʔsa	iʃa
ear	*wɘ	wɘ-ra-tɘʔ	wɘk
earth	*luʔpaʔ	noʔpaʔ	luʔpaʔ
earth:CL	*-luʔ	-nuʔ	- luʔ
egg	*kayuʔ	kayoʔ	kað̞uʔ
evening star	*îʔwa-yu	iʔwa-yo	ɘrʔwa-ð̞u
feather, bodily hair	*anpuluʔ	anporoʔ	anpuluʔ
fire	*pɘn	pɘn	pɘn
firewood	*yiwɘ	iwɘ	ð̞iwɘk
fish	*samî	sami	samɘr
floodplain	*titɘ(ʔ)-pi	tɘtɘ-pi ~ tɘti-wi	tʃitɘk-pi-luʔ
flower	*yanku	yanko	ð̞anku
foot	*lan-tɘʔ	nan-tɘʔ	lan-tɘk
genipa	*ɘsa	isa	ɘksa
giant armadillo	*ipɘ	ɘpɘ ~ ipɘ	ipɘk
hair	aîn ~ în	ain	ɘrn
head	*mutuʔ	motoʔ	mutuʔ
horn	*pɘnmun	pomon	pɘnmun
house	*piyɘʔ	pɘiʔ	pið̞ɘk
huaman samana tree	*anpînian	anpinian	anpɘnɲan
huangana	*laman	naman	laman
huasaco	*aʔlanan	aʔnanan	aʔlanan
huito tree	*ɘsa	isa	ɘksa
husband	*suʔya	suʔya, suʔ-in	suð̞a, suð̞-in
irapai palm	*panpɘ	panpɘ	panpɘk-lu
jaguar	*niʼniʔ	niʔniʔ	ɲiɲiʔ(-wa)
knee	*tuʔtuʔpi	toʔtopi	tuʔtuʔpi
leaf for the roof	*paLi	pani-ra	paʎi
leg	*tuLa	tona	tula
liquid:CL	*-yɘʔ	-iʔ	-ð̞ɘk
lisa fish	*nîka-la	nika-ra	nɘrka-la
louse	*timɘn	tɘmɘn	tʃimɘn
macana fish	*sîʼwi(n)	ʃiʔwi-roʔ	sɘrwin
maize	*tiʔtîʔ	ʃiʔʃiʔ < *tîʔtîʔ	tʃitɘr ~ tʃitɘrʔ
mammal sp.	*puʔsî	poʔʃi ‘squirrel sp.’	puʔsɘr ‘pygmy-marmoset’
manioc	*kîʔ	kiʔ	kɘrʔ
maquisapa	*tuʼya	toʔya	tuð̞a
moriche palm	*tipî	ʃipi < *tîpî	tʃipɘr ~ tʃipɘrʔ
mosquito net	*tipî-tɘʔ	ʃipi-tɘʔ < *tîpî-tɘʔ	tʃipɘr-tʃɘk ~ tʃipɘt-tʃɘk
mouth, language	lanlan/lanlam-V-, *laʔlaʔ	nanan / nanam-ɘn
musmuque monkey	*kuyɘ	kuwi	kuð̞ɘk
nail	*tuʔ-tɘ(ʔ)-la	toʔ-tɘ-ra-tɘʔ	tuʔtɘk-la
name	*linlin	ninin	ʎinʎin
nose	*nî-tɘʔ	ni-tɘʔ	nɘrtʃɘk ~ nɘttʃɘk
opossum	*ana-sî	anaʃi	anasɘr
otter	*yɘnni	ini	ð̞ɘnɲi
over	*ayi-	ai-	að̞i-
pain in the eye	*yaʼpi-	yaʔpi-ra ‘eye’	ð̞api-
pineapple	*sînpa	ʃinpa	sɘrnpa
platanillo	*tanku	tanko ‘platanillo’	tanku ‘banana’
porcupine	*sisɘ(ʔ)	sɘsɘʔ ~ sɘsɘ	sisɘk ~ siʔsɘk
pressing with fingernails	*yɘʔ-	iʔ-	ð̞ɘk-
pucacuru ant	*lipî	nipi	lipɘr-λa
pus	*yuLîʔ	yoniʔ	ð̞ulɘrʔ-yuʔ
rain	*uʔlan	oʔnan	uʔlan
recently/late, afternoon	*îʔwa	iʔwa	ɘrʔwa
reed	*siwî(n)	ʃiwi	siwɘn-ɲan
river mouth	tinpîn-nan / tinpîn-nam-	tʃinpinam-ɘn	tʃinpɘnɲan
root	*i-tɘʔ	i-tɘʔ	i-tɘk
rope	*iLa-lin	ina-rin	ila-ʎin
sachavaca, tapir	*panwala	pawara	panwala
sand	*yî-luʔ-tɘʔ	i-nu-tɘʔ	ð̞ɘ-λuʔ-tɘk
scare	*ayi(ʔ)wan	aiwan	að̞iwan-
shrimp	*wan	wan-ʃa	wan-ʃɘn
sister (of a man)	*utî	oʃi, uʃi	utɘr
sister (of a woman)	*kayɘ	kai, 3 kai-n	kað̞ɘk, kað̞ɘ-n
sour	aî- ~ î-	ai-	ɘr-
sweet	*kasî-	kaʃi	kasɘr
termite	îʔtɘ(ʔ)l... ~ îʔtɘ(ʔ)l...	iʔtɘrɘʔ	ɘttʃɘkla
thief (> to steal)	*apî(ʔ)	apiʔ	apɘr-
thin	*simɘn	ʃimɘn-	simɘn
thorn	*lawan	nawan	lawan
tick	*tɘpa	tɘpa	tɘkpa
to believe	*latɘ(ʔ)-	natɘ-	latɘk-
to bite	*ki-tɘ(ʔ)-	kɘtɘ-	kitɘk
to burn	*aʼpɘ(ʔ)-	aʔpɘ-	apɘk-
to burn (vt.)	*yiʔsîʔ-	iʔʃi- ‘to dip into salt’ < *yîʔsî-	ð̞iʔsɘrʔ
to bury	*paʼpîʔ-	paʔpi-	papɘrʔ-
to carry	*piʔpɘ(ʔ)-	pɘʔpɘ-	piʔpɘk-
to climb	*nanpɘ(ʔ)-	nanpɘ-	nanpɘk-
to come	*wɘʔ-	wɘʔ-	wɘk-
to crawl	*patɘ(ʔ)-	patɘ-	patɘk-
to cut	pɘʔtɘ(ʔ)- ~ pɘʼtɘ(ʔ)-	pɘʔtɘ-	pɘktɘk-
to die	*timin-	tʃimin-	tʃimin-
to die out	*takîʔ-	taki-	takɘrʔ
to eat, to have sex	*kaʔ-	kaʔ-	kaʔ-
to end	*nanîʔ-	nani- ‘to end’	nanɘrʔ- ‘to forget, to flee’
to fly	*pɘn-	pɘn-	pɘn-
to fry, to singe	kɘ-, kɘ-t-	kɘ-t-	kɘk-
to gnaw	*wɘLu-	wɘno-	wɘklu-
to jump	*inyɘ(ʔ)-	nii-	inð̞ɘk
to kneel	*iyɘnsun-	ison-	yɘnsun-
to know	*luwî-	nowi-	luwɘr-
to meet (to find?)	*kapîʔ-	na-kapi-	kapɘrʔ-
to plant	*tîaʔ-	ʃaʔ-	tɘra-
to pour	*pasîʔ-	paʃi- ‘to perfume’	pasɘrʔ-
to see	*liʔ-	niʔ-	ʎiʔ-
to sting	*wî-	wi-	wɘr-
to suck, to lick	*iluʔ-	iro-	iluʔ-
to sweep	*witɘ(ʔ)-	wɘtɘ- ‘to extend’	witɘk-
to tie	*tɘnpuʔ-	tonpoʔ ‘bundle’, tonpo- ~ tɘnpo-	tɘnpuʔ-
to untie	ɘʔkî- ~ ɘʼkî-	iʔki-ri-	ɘkkɘr
tocon monkey	*tukun	tokon	tukun
tongue	*ninɘ(ʔ)-la	nɘnɘ-ra	ɲinɘk-la
toucan	*yuʼwin	yoʔwin	ð̞uwin
trace	*îʔla	iʔna-	ɘrʔʎa
vein, sinew, tendon	*îpa-tɘʔ	ipa-tɘʔ	ɘrpa-tɘk
vine:CL	*-lin	-rin	-lin
vulture	*supuʔ	sopoʔ	supuʔ
water	*yɘʔ	iʔ	ð̞ɘk
who	*yɘn	in	ð̞ɘn
wound (> to get spoilt, ugly)	*apîʔ	apiʔ	apɘrʔ
yanguaturi (armadillo sp.)	*ipɘ	ɘpɘ/ipɘ	ipɘk
you	*kɘnma	kɘma	kɘnma

Valenzuela (2011)

Valenzuela (2011) gives the following Swadesh list table for the Proto-Cahuapana, Jebero, and Chayahuita.^[6]

no.	Spanish gloss	English gloss	Proto-Cahuapana	Jebero	Chayahuita
1	yo, me, a mí	I	*kʷa	kʷa, -ku	ka, ku
2	tú	you	*kɨma	kənma	kɨma
3a	nosotros (exclusivo)	we (exclusive)	*k[u/i]ja	kuða	kija
3b	nosotros (inclusivo)	we (inclusive)	*k[ɨ/a]npu(ʔ)wa(ʔ)	kənmuʔwa	kanpuwa, kamuwa
4	este	this	*[a/i]suʔ	asuʔ	isuʔ
5	él, ella	he, she	*[na/i]na	nana	iná
6	¿quién?	who?		ðən	intaʔ
7	¿qué?	what?	*ma(ʔ)	maʔnən	maʔtaʔ
8	no	no	*kuʔ	kuʔlaʔ	kuʔ
9a	todos	all (pl.)		iɲəɾðapəɾ	kaʔipinan
9b	todo	all (sg.)		iɲə	jaʔipiɾa
10	mucho	many	*na(ʔ)ku(n)	nakusuʔ	naʔkun 'muchos' ("many, pl.")
11	uno	one	*a(ʔ)ɾaʔ	alaʔsaʔ	aʔnaʔ
12	dos	two	*katuʔ	katuʔtaʔ	katuʔ
13	grande	big		aʔʎupi	panka
14	largo	long		ʃin	napuɾupi
15	pequeño	small		aʔməɾ	waʔwiʃin
16	mujer	woman		kuʔapəɾ	sanapi
17	hombre, varón	man, male		ənmupinən	kɨmapi
18	persona	person		muðaʔ	pijapi
19	pájaro	bird		ʃunpula	inaiɾa
20a	jaguar	jaguar	*ni[ʔ]niʔ	ɲiɲiʔ	niʔniʔ
20b	perro	dog		ɲiɲiʔwa	niʔniɾa
21	piojo	louse	*timɨn	tʃimən	tɨmɨn
22	árbol	tree	*naɾa	nala	naɾa
23	semilla, ojo	seed, eye	*ɾaja	laða	-ɾaja 'cara, ojo, semilla' ("face, eye, seed")
24	hoja	sheet		lalumək	wɨɾun-
25	raíz	root	*itɨk	iɾək	itɨʔ
26	corteza	bark		tʃipiɾək	ʃaʔwɨtɨʔ
27	piel	skin		tʃipitək	ʃaʔwɨtɨʔ
28	carne	meat		tʃutʃu	nuʃa
29	sangre	blood		uklaðək	wɨnaiʔ
30	hueso	bone	*ɾans[i/ɨ]ʔ	lansiʔ	nansɨʔ
31	grasa	fat, grease	*ija	ija-	ija- 'freír'
32	fuego	fire	*pɨn	pən	pɨn
33	huevo	egg	*kajuʔ	kaðuʔ	kajuʔ
34	sangre	blood		wiʔwək	pumun
35	hueso	bone		ʎintək	winan
36	pluma	feather	*anpuɾuʔ	anpuluʔ	anpuɾuʔ
37	pez	fish	*sami	saməɾ	sami
38	pelo	hair	*ain(tɨk)	əntʃək	ain
39	cabeza	head	*mutuʔ	mutuʔ	mutuʔ
40	oreja	ear	*w[i(ʔ)/ɨ]ɾatɨk	wiʔwək	wɨɾatɨʔ
41	ojo	eye	*ja(ʔ)pi	ðapi- 'doler el ojo' ("the eye hurts")	jaʔpiɾa
41b	ojo, cara	eye, face		laða	-ɾaja 'clasificador' ("classifier")
42	uña	nail	*tuʔtɨ(k)ɾa	tuʔtəkla	tuʔtɨɾatɨʔ
43	respirar	breathe	*n[i/ɨ]tɨk	nəʔttʃək (< nəɾ + -tək)	nitɨʔ
44	boca	mouth	*ɾaʔɾa[ʔ/n]	laʔlaʔ	nanan
45	diente	tooth	*ɾatɨk	latək	natiʔ
46	lengua	tongue	*ninɨkɾa	ɲinəkla	nɨnɨɾa
47	pie	foot	*ɾantɨk	lantək	nantɨʔ
48	rodilla	knee	*tutuʔtu[ʔ]pi	tuʔtuʔpi	tuʔtupitɨʔ
49	mano	hand		itəkla	imiɾa
50	barriga	belly	*juʔ	məɾpi; ikəɾ-ðu(ʔ) 'doler la baɾɾiga' ("the belly hurts")	juʔnau
51	cuello	neck	*kuɾupi	kulupi 'manzana de Adán' ("Adam's apple")	kunupi
52	seno	breast		muðin	ʃuʔʃu
53	corazón	heart	*jinɾupi	ðinlupi	ninupi
54	hígado	liver	*kankan	kankan	kankan
55	beber	drink	*uʔu-	u-	uʔu
56	comer	eat	*kaʔ	kaʔ-	kaʔ
57	morder	bite	*kitɨ(k)	kitək-	kɨtɨ-
58	ver	see	*ɾiʔ	ʎiʔ-	niʔ-
59	oír	hear		lawək-	natan-
60	saber	know		ɲintʃi- 'aprender' ("to catch")	nitotɨ-
61	dormir	sleep	*w[i/ɨ]C(ʔ)	witʃiʔ-	wɨʔɨ-
62	morir	die	*timin	tʃimin-	tʃimin-
63	matar	kill		ðiʔ-	tɨpa-
64	nadar	swim	*(i)jun	iðun-	jun-
65	volar	fly	*pɨn	pənnuʔ-	pɨn-
66	ir	go	*paʔ	paʔ-	paʔ-
67	venir	come	*wɨ(k)	wək-	wɨ-
68	estar echado, echarse	lying down		pəkkwaʔ-	kɨwɨn- 'echarse' ("to lie down")
69	estar sentado, sentarse	seated		ðuʔ-	wɨnsɨ-
70	estar parado	standing up	*wani	wanəɾ-	wani-
71	dar	give		ənkaʔ-	kɨtɨ-
72	decir	say	*it(ɨ/u)	(i)ɾ-	itɨ- 'dice' ("say")
73	sol	sun		kəkki	piʔi
74	luna	moon	*juki	ðukəɾ	juki
75	estrella	star	*ta(n)juɾa	tanðula	tajuɾa
76	agua	water		ðək	iʔʃa, tɨʔkɨin 'río' ("river")
77	lluvia	rain	*uʔɾan	uʔlan	uʔnan
78	piedra	stone	*ɾaʔpi	laʔpi	naʔpi
79	arena	sand		ðəʎuʔtɨk, kaʎiluʔ	inutɨʔ
80	tierra	earth	*ɾu(ʔ)paʔ	lupaʔ	nuʔpaʔ
81	nube	cloud		ðinpanluʔtək	wiɾiɾuʔtɨ, jaɾaɾuʔtɨ, piʔiɾutɨ, ʃituɾuʔ
82	humo	smoke		kəʎu	kunaiʔ
83	ceniza	ashes	*jaɾuʔ	pənðaluʔ	januʔ
84	quemar(se)	burn	*w[i/ɨ](ʔ)ki	wəʔkəɾ-	wiki-
85	camino	road		intʃilala	iɾa
86a	cerro	mountain	*mutupi	mutupi	mutupi
86b	selva	jungle	*tanan	tanan	tanan
87	rojo	red		pipəɾ	kɨwan
88	verde	green		wawa 'una fruta' ("a fruit"), aðawaʔ 'opaco' ("opaque")	kanuɾa
89	amarillo	yellow	*ʃaʔpi(ʔ)	ʃaʔpiʔ	ʃaʔpitun
90	blanco	white		ðaða	wiɾitun
91	negro	black		kəɾ	jaɾatun
92	noche	night		kasisəɾ 'oscuro' ("dark")	taʃiʔ
93	gusano	worm	*kuwi(ʔ)	kuweɾ 'lombriz' ("earthworm")	kuwiʔ
94	frío	cold		sanək	sɨwɨn
95	lleno	full		muɾ	mɨntaʃa, mɨnta- 'estar lleno' ("to be full")
96	nuevo	new	*na	nalu	naʃa
97	bueno	good		mukankan, uʔtʃimu 'bonito' ("beautiful")	nuja
98	redondo	round		munkun	putʃin jaʔnuɾinsuʔ, tawiʃi
99	seco	dry		ən- 'estar seco' ("to be dry")	jakɨn
100	nombre	name	*ɾiɾin	ʎi(n)ʎin	ninin

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968)

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Cahuapanan languages.^[3]

gloss	Cahuapana	Chayavita	Jebero	Miquirá
one	ara	haná	aláʔatsa
two	katu	kató	katáta
three	kara	kará	kála
head	mutu	mostó	móto	hu-mato
ear	buek	wuiraté	wuíoga
tooth	nate	naté	látek
fire	puín	puíng	pön	punga
stone	napí	napí	láʔapi	napi
sun	kéki	pií	köki	kogua
moon	matáshi	yuxkí	rúkör	rúki
maize	tötrla	shiʔishí	chíter	chichi
dog	nini	niʔíni	niní	nini
boat	nũng	ñong	ñung	nunga

References

^ Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2016). Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas (Ph.D. dissertation) (2 ed.). Brasília: University of Brasília.
^ Rojas-Berscia, Louis Miguel (2015). "Mayna, the lost Kawapanan language". IAMES. 15: 393–407. Retrieved 2 September 2024.
^ ^a ^b Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
^ Loukotka, Čestmír. 1949. Sur Quelques Langues Inconnues de l'Amerique du Sud. Lingua Posnaniensis I: 53-82.
^ Rojas-Berscia, Luis Miguel. 2019. From Kawapanan to Shawi: Topics in language variation and change. Doctoral dissertation, Radboud University Nijmegen.
^ Valenzuela Bismarck, Pilar. 2011. Contribuciones para la reconstrucción del proto-cahuapana: comparación léxica y gramatical de las lenguas jebero y chayahuita. In Willem F. H. Adelaar and Pilar Valenzuela Bismarck and Roberto Zariquiey Biondi (eds.), Aru, Simi, Taqu, Lengua: Estudios en homenaje a Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, 271-304. Lima: Fondo Editorial, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú.

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