The Arnhem languages (purple), and other non-Pama–Nyungan languages (grey). Below (closeup): the individual families.
Kungarakany
Gaagudju
Maningrida
Gunwinyguan
East Arnhem
Marran
The Macro-Gunwinyguan languages, also called Arnhem or Gunwinyguan, are a family of Australian Aboriginal languages spoken across eastern Arnhem Land in northern Australia. Their relationship has been demonstrated through shared morphology in their verbal inflections.
Many of the languages have a fortis–lenis contrast in plosive consonants. Lenis/short plosives have weak contact and intermittent voicing, while fortis/long plosives have full closure, a more powerful release burst, and no voicing.[citation needed]
Languages
Rebecca Green (2004) reconstructed the paradigms of 28 Proto-Arnhem verbs.[1] The languages included by Green are as follows, though Green only accepts Maningrida as a demonstrated branch:[2]
This is close to what Evans (1997) proposed under the name Gunwinyguan (cf. his very different proposal of Arnhem Land languages.)
Marra, Warndarrang, Alawa, and Mangarrayi have been argued to constitute a Marran family of considerable time depth (Sharpe 2008).[3][4]
Heath (1990)[5] demonstrated an East Arnhem family of Ngandi + Nunggubuyu, to which Enindhilyagwa was added (as a closer relative to Nunggubuyu) by Van Egmond (2012).[6][7]
However, Green (2003) argues that only Maningrida has been established as a valid subgroup, and that the interrelationships of the other languages are as yet unclear. The evidence for Gunwinyguan and perhaps other nodes listed above may simply be reflections of a relationship of all Arnhem languages when only a subset of them was investigated. That is, these groups may be based on shared retentions of Proto-Arnhem rather than distinct historical developments. (However, in reviewing Green, Evans pointed out that much of the Maningrida morphology was also shared by Mangarrayi.[2]) An agnostic view of the family would list each language separately, except for the established Maningrida branch:
*Green does not address Anindilyakwa, Alawa, or Yugul. Yugul is too poorly attested for comparison based on her methods; the other two await validation.
Yangmanic, including Wardaman, had once been included in Gunwinyguan, but has been removed from recent classifications.
External classification
Evans (1997) proposes that these languages are related to Pama–Nyungan in a family he calls Macro-Pama–Nyungan, but this has not yet been demonstrated.[8]
^Bowern, Claire and Harold Koch, 2004. Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method, p 44
^ abGreen, Rebecca (2003). "Proto-Maningrida within Proto-Arnhem: evidence from verbal inflectional suffixes". In Nicholas Evans (ed.). The Non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia. Pacific Linguistics 552. Canberra: Australian National University. pp. 369–421. doi:10.15144/PL-552. hdl:1885/146725. ISBN9780858835382.
^Heath, Jeffrey, 1990, A case of intensive lexical diffusion: Arnhem Land, Australia
^Van Egmond, M-E. (2012). "Enindhilyakwa phonology, morphosyntax and genetic position." Doctoral thesis. University of Sydney. pp. 314–70. hdl:2123/8747
^Bowern, C. (2017). "Language isolates of Australia." in Campbell, L., ed. Language Isolates. Abingdon: Routledge: 323–43
^McConvell, Patrick and Nicholas Evans. (eds.) 1997. Archaeology and Linguistics: Global Perspectives on Ancient Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press
^Evans, Nicholas, 2003, The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia
^Harvey, Mark. 2003. An initial reconstruction of Proto Gunwinyguan phonology. In Evans, Nicholas (ed.), The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 205-268. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Macro Macworld Australia Macro-Jê languages Macro (computer science) Macro photography Hygienic macro Macro virus Naevius Sutorius Macro VAX MACRO Macro and security Macro recorder Macro-Pama–Nyungan languages General-purpose macro processor Macro-Paesan languages ACS Macro Letters Image macro Banco Macro Macro-engineering Minolta AF Macro 100mm f/2.8 X macro Cox Macro Macro-Siouan languages Macro-Jibaro languages Variadic macro in the C preprocessor Sony FE 90mm F2.8 Macro G OSS Minolta AF Macro 50mm f/2.8 Microsoft MACRO-80 Canon MP-E 65mm f/2.8 1–5x Macro Macro Express Fujinon XF 60mm …
f/2.4 R Macro Macro-Arawakan languages Macro-Andean languages ARC Macro Language Macro-Panoan languages Macro-Warpean languages Macro-Chibchan languages Canon EF 100mm lens Macro-Otomákoan languages Sigma 70-300mm f/4–5.6 APO DG Macro lens Macro-Mayan languages Macro BMA Macro key Macro Sea Macro Manuscript Anaphoric macro MACRO-11 Mi Macro Calzada Macro domain Macro-Bai languages M4 (computer language) Sony E 30mm F3.5 Macro Mr. Children 2005–2010 macro Global macro Macro risk Macro-Gunwinyguan languages Tamron AF 18-270mm F/3.5-6.3 Di II VC LD Aspherical (IF) MACRO Guadalajara Mi Macro Canon EF-M 28mm Macro lens MACRO-10 Macro BIM Mi Macro Periférico Sigma 18–50mm f/2.8 EX DC Macro lens Sony FE 50mm F2.8 Macro BH Macro Stefan Goldmann Music Macro Language Lucius Attius Macro Lisp reader Olympus Zuiko Digital 35mm f/3.5 Macro Microsoft Macro Assembler Mataco–Guaicuru languages Macro-creatine kinase Pentax D FA 100mm WR lens Je–Tupi–Carib languages C preprocessor Canon EF 180mm f/3.5L Macro USM lens Community practice MacroMind Canon EF-S 60mm f/2.8 Macro USM lens Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome Micro-operation Tamron SP AF 90mm f/2.8 Di 1:1 Macro Sigma 150mm f/2.8