Macro-Gunwinyguan languages

Not to be confused with Arnhem Land languages.

"Marran languages" redirects here. For Maran languages of the Pama–Nyungan family, see Maric languages.

Macro-Gunwinyguan
Arnhem
Geographic distribution	northern Australia
Linguistic classification	Macro-Pama–Nyungan? Macro-Gunwinyguan
Subdivisions	Maningrida Gunwinyguan East Arnhem Marran Alawa Mangarrayi Kungarakany Gagudju
Language codes
Glottolog	gunw1250  (Gunwinyguan) mani1293  (Maningrida) mang1423  (Mangarrayi-Maran) kung1259  (Kungarakany) gaga1251  (Gaagudju)
The Arnhem languages (purple), and other non-Pama–Nyungan languages (grey). Below (closeup): the individual families.
Kungarakany      Gaagudju   Maningrida   Gunwinyguan   East Arnhem   Marran

The Macro-Gunwinyguan languages, also called Arnhem or Gunwinyguan, are a family of Australian Aboriginal languages spoken across eastern Arnhem Land in northern Australia. Their relationship has been demonstrated through shared morphology in their verbal inflections.

Many of the languages have a fortis–lenis contrast in plosive consonants. Lenis/short plosives have weak contact and intermittent voicing, while fortis/long plosives have full closure, a more powerful release burst, and no voicing.^{[citation needed]}

Languages

Rebecca Green (2004) reconstructed the paradigms of 28 Proto-Arnhem verbs.^[1] The languages included by Green are as follows, though Green only accepts Maningrida as a demonstrated branch:^[2]

• Macro-Gunwinyguan
  • Maningrida
    • Burarra
    • Guragone
    • Djeebbana
    • Nakkara
  • ? East Arnhem:
    • Nunggubuyu
    • Ngandi †
    • Anindilyakwa (Enindhilyagwa)*
  • ? Marran:
    • Marra
    • Warndarang †
    • ?Yugul †
    • ?Alawa*
    • ?Mangarayi †
  • Kungarakany †
  • Gaagudju †
  • ? Gunwinyguan (Gunwinyguan proper)
    • Gunwinggic:
      • Kunwinjku (Gunwinggu, Bininj Kunwok)
      • Gunbarlang †
    • Jawoyn (Djauan)
    • Dalabon (Ngalkbun) †
    • Jala (Rembarngic):
      • Rembarunga
      • Ngalakgan †
    • Warrayic: †
      • Waray †
      • Uwinymil †

This is close to what Evans (1997) proposed under the name Gunwinyguan (cf. his very different proposal of Arnhem Land languages.)

Marra, Warndarrang, Alawa, and Mangarrayi have been argued to constitute a Marran family of considerable time depth (Sharpe 2008).^[3][4]

Heath (1990)^[5] demonstrated an East Arnhem family of Ngandi + Nunggubuyu, to which Enindhilyagwa was added (as a closer relative to Nunggubuyu) by Van Egmond (2012).^[6][7]

However, Green (2003) argues that only Maningrida has been established as a valid subgroup, and that the interrelationships of the other languages are as yet unclear. The evidence for Gunwinyguan and perhaps other nodes listed above may simply be reflections of a relationship of all Arnhem languages when only a subset of them was investigated. That is, these groups may be based on shared retentions of Proto-Arnhem rather than distinct historical developments. (However, in reviewing Green, Evans pointed out that much of the Maningrida morphology was also shared by Mangarrayi.^[2]) An agnostic view of the family would list each language separately, except for the established Maningrida branch:

Kungarakany, Mangarrayi, Marra, Maningrida, Ngalakgan, Bininj Kunwok (Gunwinggu), Warndarrang, Uwinymil, Gaagudju, Dalabon, Kunbarlang, Rembarrnga, Nunggubuyu, Jawoyn, Warray, Ngandi

*Green does not address Anindilyakwa, Alawa, or Yugul. Yugul is too poorly attested for comparison based on her methods; the other two await validation.

Yangmanic, including Wardaman, had once been included in Gunwinyguan, but has been removed from recent classifications.

External classification

Evans (1997) proposes that these languages are related to Pama–Nyungan in a family he calls Macro-Pama–Nyungan, but this has not yet been demonstrated.^[8]

In 2003, he proposed that they are also related to the Eastern Daly languages.^[9]

Vocabulary

Capell (1940) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:^[10]

gloss	Gunwinggu	Gunbarlang	Ngaɖi
man	biniṉ	giɖimarg	ŋarga
woman	muli‘muliŋ	baramimbaṉ	gandar
head	gungɔidj	gɔidjgɔidj	waːlu
eye	gunmin	wumu	milba
nose	gungɛb	wumɛːli	mulju
mouth	gundaŋ	djaːɖɛɽ	lira
tongue	gundjɛn	ŋaːg	djälaṉ
stomach	gunjan	mugmaɳɖi	djaːla
bone	gunmuruŋ	gɛːgɛg	gidji
blood	gungulba	moɭobin	djugän
kangaroo	gɔɳɔbɔlɔ	goːin	djädji
opossum	djɛːbui	gundärbu	djaŋana
emu	gurugaiju	maɳɖɛb
crow	waːg	djidaːwun	djäŋilga
fly	bɔːd	mog	ŋurin
sun	gunduŋ	gaːnag	bɽaŋu
moon	diːd	wurana	jagan
fire	gunɽag	wiɖidj	waɭu
smoke	gundɔlŋ	wungawu	gundjuru
water	gunɽɔin	njunjug	ŋaba

Capell (1942) lists the following additional basic vocabulary items for the Gunwinyguan languages:^[11]

gloss	Southern Gunwinggu	Muralidban	Andiljaugwa	Nunggubuyu	Wandarang	Ngandi	Rainbarngo	Buan	Gundangbon
man	binin	binin	nanamamalja	nawarinjuŋ	nawaɽiji	nijul	biː	jawurin	biji
woman	dalug	ŋalwareːrulg	wudáriŋga	ŋaramaninjuŋ	ŋiwoibi	namanaŋ	diŋ‘	giɖigiɖ	girigidj
head	gungoidj	gungoidan	ariŋga	jinag	wugululu	gulaŋ	djara	gɔidj	gɔidj
eye	gunmiːm	gunmiːm	meːnba	bagaɭa	mamaguɽ	maŋandjula	gaindjulja	mïmï	mumu
nose	gungəb	gungəb	aminda	jɔmɔːr	wundjíriba	gwijiban	giːja	djɛː	djɛː
mouth	gundaŋ	gundaŋ	adira	ɽamadan	wuŋaːndal	gudagula	diːjälŋ	daːləː	dalugaɽa‘
tongue	gundjen	gundjen	aljäljigba	laːn	wudjijil	gudälŋ	diːjälŋ	dɛl	djɛn
stomach	gunjam	gunmelem	mulgwa	ŋuɖan	wuŋandja	mowara	giːna	guː	ŋu‘
bone	gunmuruŋ	gunmuruŋ	adidira	ŋagaɽa	wuŋaɽaga	guŋaɽaga	balmana	mɔː	mɔː
blood	gungulba	gungulba	meːra	wulaŋ	maŋulidji	mabaɳgo	gulbana	guraidj	gulba
kangaroo	goɳobolo	gundagi	juburáda	ŋargọ	mulbia	mulbia	bulaidj-bulaidj	guiṉ	guiṉ
opossum	djɛːbui	duri	juguŋba	jirgi	ajirgin	aɖawa	marŋo	dugula	dugula
emu	gurugaiju			wajin	ŋiwurugan	awurban		ŋuroɖo	ŋuroɖo
crow	waːg	waːg	jiŋwa	wɔːwag	waɽgwaɽg	awa‘wa	wa‘wa‘	wa‘wa‘	wa‘wa‘
fly	bɔːd	bɔːd	juwama	amun	awamun	abɔd	buad	mɔɽ	bɔːd
sun	gunduŋ	ŋalbɛnbe	mamaːwura	aɭir	ŋinguŋaru	mawaɭir	muda	walir	bɛbagar
moon	diːɖ	diːɖ	jimaːwura	labama	nadaŋadaŋa	nigurŋa	gurŋa	diɖ	gurŋa
fire	gunag	gunag	aŋuɽa	ŋuɽa	wuŋambur	gudaŋi	ŋuɽa	mimäl	mimäl
smoke	gundɔlŋ	gundɔlŋ	aŋwara	wuŋuban	wundular	gubán	dɔːɭŋ	dɔlgnɔ	djunör
water	gogo	gunɽɔːṉ	aguŋwa	agogo	wuŋaladja	gujärg	djula	waː	waː

Proto-language

Proto-Gunwinyguan
Reconstruction of	Gunwinyguan languages

Below are some reconstructed Proto-Gunwinyguan (i.e., Proto-Gunwinyguan proper) animal and plant names from Harvey (2003):^[12]

Proto-Gunwinyguan animal names

no.	gloss	Proto-Gunwinyguan
8	gudgeon sp.	*cakorlk
10	centipede	*calarr
18	death adder	*campVn/rn
26	frill-necked lizard	*cangkurr
31	quoll	*cappo
32	long-horned grasshopper	*cappurtenyqrteny
35	crayfish	*carla
38	jabiru	*carnarran
39	whimbrel	*carnpalcarnpal
42	water goanna	*carrkka
44	female agile wallaby	*carrurtrtu
49	green tree frog	*catngerecngerec
53	koel	*cawok
70	rifle fish	*cetperte
77	willy wagtail	*cikirricikirric
80	whistleduck	*cilikuypi
96	quail	*cirrirnrti(t)
102	bony bream	*cirrpili
103	whistleduck	*cirrpiyuk
105	scorpion	*co(wo)c
107	hornet	*cokparl
108	carpet snake	*cokpiny
121	nail-tailed wallaby	*cotet
127	water goanna	*cucca
128	female black wallaby	*cukerre
138	bowerbird	*curerrk
139	kingfisher sp.	*curk
142	black-headed python	*curn
143	rock wallaby	*curnrtupolq
145	taipan	*currang
148	tawny frogmouth, owl sp.	*currul
152	kangaroo rat	*Cakot
154	fishtail palm	*Calmarr
173	tawny frogmouth	*Cawarl
178	willy wagtail	*Ciningkirric
215	jabiru	*kanci
230	bony bream	*karlarlppa
232	Long Tom fish	*karlerrq
237	black cockatoo	*karnamarr
238	black flying fox	*karnampal
239	emu, large feathers on emu	*karnanganyca
241	big bandicoot	*karnma
249	dingo	*karnrteken
253	black cockatoo	*karrak
255	spoonbill	*karral/rla
264	goshawk	*karrkkany
275	dingo	*kawirVq
276	nankeen night heron	*kawk
277	friarbird	*kaworlk
336	kookaburra	*korrowkkorrow
344	echidna	*kowarrang
347	freshwater crocodile	*koyow
353	emu	*kulppiny
359	tawny frogmouth	*kuluyqkuluy
364	blue-tongue lizard	*kungar(l)ak
369	black-headed python	*kunungu
374	paperbark sp.	*kurlkurl
378	ibis sp.	*kurnrtirnrtirn
384	blue-tongue lizard	*kurri
385	blue-tongue lizard	*kurrmul/rlu
388	olive python	*kurrucartu
405	saltwater crocodile	*kVngV
408	kookaburra	*kVrVwVk
417	sugar glider	*Lampalk
433	spotted bream	*Leppal
442	black cockatoo	*Lirrapin
448	butcherbird	*Lopolopo
464	black-headed python	*maccurn
467	pelican	*makkakkurr
485	echidna	*manappurn
495	centipede	*marla
511	water goanna	*marrampal
523	friarbird	*martawk
528	barramundi	*martpiny
530	barramundi	*martukkal
561	blue-tongue lizard	*milqtarl
570	barramundi	*mirricci
586	blue-tongue lizard	*morlel
598	rainbow serpent	*muc
617	spoonbill	*muqmu
625	flying fox	*murru
637	frogmouth	*Na-cik
639	barramundi	*Namarnkorl
644	black flying fox	*Nangamung
645	saltwater crocodile	*Nangkurru
664	grey-crowned babbler	*ngakngak
667	white corella	*ngalelek
684	white cockatoo	*ngarrac
685	saratoga	*ngarrayarl
687	short-necked turtle	*ngart
690	rifle fish	*ngatpan
702	white cockatoo	*ngerrk
756	tree rat; quoll	*pakkaci
801	spotted nightjar	*parnangka
807	kookaburra	*parraca
808	darter (bird sp.)	*parrakparrak
812	black wallaroo	*parrk
820	march fly	*partrti
824	pelican	*paya
827	file snake	*pekka
831	gecko spp.	*pelerrk
839	bustard	*penuk
845	plover	*perrepperrep
846	rainbow bee-eater	*perrertperrert
847	masked plover	*pettelerrelerre
850	file snake	*piccirri
856	galah	*pilkpilk
866	barramundi	*pirlmu
873	glossy ibis	*pirnrtu
887	archer fish	*poccalk
904	water python	*porlokko
906	brolga	*pornorrong
915	velvet-tailed gecko	*poywek
923	pheasant	*pukpuk
932	ghost bat	*pumapuma
934	file snake	*punupun
941	water goanna	*purarr
954	water python	*purrurtci
963	red-eyed pigeon	*rakul
976	Torresian imperial pigeon	*rumuq
981	sand goanna	*Talak
997	black cockatoo	*Tarrapiya
1009	plover	*Tetterran
1012	dollar bird	*Tewtew
1020	peewee	*Tirlkrtirlk
1024	moon; moon snake	*Tirt
1025	wedge-tailed eagle	*Tiwana
1034	rock wallaby	*Torriya
1045	ring-tailed possum	*Tukula
1049	bony bream	*Tulukkurr
1067	green tree frog	*thakparrarraq
1093	Long Tom fish	*thumpi
1097	bandicoot	*thungkaq
1100	king brown snake	*T(h)atpe
1115	crow	*wakwak
1123	bustard	*walppurrungku
1171	butcherbird	*warrkcirt
1196	rainbow fish	*werec
1206	possum	*wirik
1216	bird sp.; rainbow bee-eater; kingfisher; whipbirds	*wirritwirrit
1217	black-faced cuckooshrike	*wirriwirriyak
1231	cockroach	*wor(o)cwor(o)c
1244	possum sp.	*wumpu
1274	yabby	*yarr
1291	bird sp.; mopoke; kite	*yerr/riny
1303	water rat	*yirrkkup
1314	lightning; rain; Leichhardt's grasshopper [seen in wet season]	*yurr

Proto-Gunwinyguan plant names

no.	gloss	Proto-Gunwinyguan
2	Grevillea pteridifolia	*caca ~ *yacca
12	spinifex	*calng
30	wattle sp.	*capec
36	king brown snake	*carlung
40	banyan	*carnqpa
54	water lily stem	*cawqcaw
60	Grevillea sp.	*cenkererr
63	milkwood	*cenycok
67	pandanus mat	*cerrpe
82	Capparis umbonata	*ciliwirn
85	Pandanus aquaticus	*cimcim
93	mistletoe	*cirnirrin/ny
141	lancewood	*curluq
223	ironwood	*kappay
235	freshwater mangrove	*karlngka/iny
236	wattle sp., woomera type	*karlppu
244	Acacia sp.	*karnpirr
258	spinifex sp.	*karrarnrtalk
278	tree sp., Gardenia megasperma, Capparis umbonata	*kayapam
321	plant sp., bush potato	*kongkong
329	Planchonia careya	*korlq
334	pandanus husk	*korrmo
341	paperbark	*kot
345	paperbark humpy, bark of stringybark	*kowk
377	black plum	*kurnrtalq
379	Flacourtia territorialis	*kurnrtun/rn
398	Terminalia grandiflora	*kutt/rtrtu
402	Banksia dentata	*kuypuk
431	Opilia amentacea	*Leklek
461	wild passionfruit	*ma(rt)rtawk
482	Canthium lucidum	*mamtak
513	palm sp., Cycas media	*marrappi
527	eucalyptus sp.	*martpa
529	paperbark, deep coolamon	*martu
576	nut of pandanus	*moc
599	coolibah	*muccu
602	paperbark sp.	*mul/rlmu
604	conkerberry	*mululuk
607	ironwood	*mulyurruny
627	black currant	*murrungkurn
677	eucalyptus sp.	*ngapak
689	cycad	*ngaththu
704	black currant	*ngik
708	pandanus sp.	*ngokngo
711	river red gum	*ngolongkoq
776	Ficus opposita	*pampul/rla
802	Owenia vernicosa	*parnarr
825	green plum	*pe/irrke/iq
826	quinine tree	*pecca
843	eucalyptus sp.	*pernpern
865	Acacia holosericea	*pirliwirli
880	tea tree	*pirtippirti
896	Dalabon	*pon
898	wattle sp.	*pongka
925	paperbark sp.	*pul(p)pul
935	clump of bamboo; Bambusa arnhemica	*-puny
953	Cassytha filiformis	*purrurnpurrurn
955	Xanthostemon paradoxus	*purt/lu
958	tree sp. - Brachychiton diversifolium	*putput
962	paperbark	*rakkalaq
971	pandanus	*rok
977	ridge; blacksoil area; grass used in corroborees	*ruwurr
999	Phragmites	*Tarrin
1058	Leichhardt tree	*Tupal
1089	quinine brush	*thorrowq
1091	Acacia holosericea	*thukkul
1095	Canthium attenuatum, Exocarpos latifolius	*thumuk
1096	bloodwood	*thumurluk
1101	pandanus	*T(h)ayarr
1154	vine sp. - Cynanchum pedunculatum	*warnpek
1169	plant sp.; Exocarpos latifolus; lemon grass	*warrinycalan
1181	Grevillea pteridifolia	*watpar
1239	black plum	*wucal
1259	pandanus	*yakngarra

References

1. Bowern, Claire and Harold Koch, 2004. Australian Languages: Classification and the Comparative Method, p 44
2. Green, Rebecca (2003). "Proto-Maningrida within Proto-Arnhem: evidence from verbal inflectional suffixes". In Nicholas Evans (ed.). The Non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia. Pacific Linguistics 552. Canberra: Australian National University. pp. 369–421. doi:10.15144/PL-552. hdl:1885/146725. ISBN 9780858835382.
3. Sharpe, Margaret C. (2008). "Alawa and its Neighbours: Enigma Variations 1 and 2". In Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn; Miceli, Luisa (eds.). Morphology and Language History: In honour of Harold Koch. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 59–70. ISBN 9789027290960.
4. N92 Alawa at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
5. Heath, Jeffrey, 1990, A case of intensive lexical diffusion: Arnhem Land, Australia
6. Van Egmond, M-E. (2012). "Enindhilyakwa phonology, morphosyntax and genetic position." Doctoral thesis. University of Sydney. pp. 314–70. hdl:2123/8747
7. Bowern, C. (2017). "Language isolates of Australia." in Campbell, L., ed. Language Isolates. Abingdon: Routledge: 323–43
8. McConvell, Patrick and Nicholas Evans. (eds.) 1997. Archaeology and Linguistics: Global Perspectives on Ancient Australia. Melbourne: Oxford University Press
9. Evans, Nicholas, 2003, The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia
10. Capell, Arthur. 1940. The Classification of Languages in North and North-West Australia. Oceania 10(3): 241-272, 404-433. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4461.1940.tb00292.x
11. Capell, Arthur. 1941-1942, 1942-1943. Languages of Arnhem Land, North Australia. Oceania 12: 364-392, 13: 24-51.
12. Harvey, Mark. 2003. An initial reconstruction of Proto Gunwinyguan phonology. In Evans, Nicholas (ed.), The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region, 205-268. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.