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Tukánoan
Tukánoan
Geographic; distribution	Amazon
Linguistic classification	One of the world's primary language families
Subdivisions	Eastern; Western; Cubeo; Miriti †;
Language codes
Glottolog	tuca1253
	East Tukano (nuclear green), Central Tukano (turquoise green) and West Tukano (dark green). Dots indicate current locations of the various languages. Shaded areas indicate their extents before the 20th century.

Tucanoan (also Tukanoan, Tukánoan) is a language family of Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru.

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arutani, Paez, Sape, Taruma, Witoto-Okaina, Saliba-Hodi, Tikuna-Yuri, Pano, Barbakoa, Bora-Muinane, and Choko language families due to contact.^[1]

Classification

Chacon (2014)

There are two dozen Tucanoan languages.^[2] There is a clear binary split between Eastern Tucanoan and Western Tucanoan.^[3]

Tucanoan
- Western Tucanoan
  - ?Cueretú (Kueretú) †
  - Napo
    - Orejón (a.k.a. M'áíhɨ̃ki, Maijiki, Coto, Koto, Payoguaje, Payaguá, Payowahe, Payawá)
    - Correguaje–Secoya
      - Correguaje (Koreguaje, Korewahe, a.k.a. Caquetá)
      - Siona–Secoya (Upper Napo, Baicoca–Siecoca)
        ?Macaguaje (a.k.a. Kakawahe, Piohé) †
        
        Siona (Bai Coca, Sioni, Pioje, Pioche-Sioni, Tetete)
        
        Secoya (Sieko Coca, Airo Pai, Piohé)
        
        ?Tama †
- Eastern Tucanoan
  - South
    - Tanimuca (a.k.a. Retuarã)
    - ?Yauna (Jaúna, Yahuna, Yaúna) †
  - West
    - Barasana–Macuna
      - Macuna (a.k.a. Buhagana, Wahana, Makuna-Erulia, Makuna)
      - Barasana (Southern Barasano, a.k.a. Paneroa, Eduria, Edulia, Comematsa, Janera, Taibano, Taiwaeno, Taiwano)
    - Cubeo–Desano
      - Cubeo (Cuveo, Kobeua, Kubewa)
      - Yupua–Desano
        ?Yupuá †
        
        Desano–Siriano (a.k.a. Desano)
  - East
    - Central
      - Tucano (Tukana, a.k.a. Dasea)
      - Waimaha–Tatuyo
        Waimajã (a.k.a. Bara, Northern Barasano)
        
        Tatuyo
    - North
      - Kotiria–Piratapuyo
        Guanano (Wanana, Wanano, a.k.a. Kotedia, Kotiria, Wanana-Pirá)
        
        Piratapuyo (a.k.a. Waikina, Uiquina)
      - Pisamira–Yuruti
        Pisamira–Carapano (Carapana, Karapana)
        
        Tuyuca–Yuruti
        Tuyuka (Tejuca, Teyuka, Tuyuca, a.k.a. Bara, Barasana)
        
        Yurutí

Plus unclassified Miriti.†

Most languages are, or were, spoken in Colombia.

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):^[1]

(† = extinct)

Tukano
- Tukano, Western
  - Kueretu †
  - Tukano, Western, Nuclear
    - Mai Huna
    - Koreguaje-Pioje
      - Koreguaje-Tama
        Koreguaje
        
        Tama †
      - Pioje (Baicoca–Siecoca)
        Makaguaje †
        
        Sekoya
        
        Siona
        
        Tetete †
- Tukano, Eastern
  - Tanimuka; Retuarã; Yahuna
  - Tukano, Eastern, West
    - Kubeo-Desano
      - Kubeo
      - Desano-Yupua
        Desano; Siriano
        
        Yupua †
    - Makuna; Barasano; Eduria
  - Tukano, Eastern, East
    - Tukano-Tatuyo
      - Tukano
      - Tatuyo-Bara-Waimaha
        Tatuyo
        
        Bara; Waimaha
    - Tuyuka-Wanano
      - Wanano-Piratapuyu
        Wanano
        
        Piratapuyo
      - Tuyuka-Karapanã
        Karapanã; Pisamira
        
        Tuyuka; Yuruti

Varieties

Below is a full list of Tucanoan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.^[4]

Tucanoan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968)

Western group

Tama - spoken on the Yarú River and Caguán River, Caquetá territory, Colombia, but now perhaps extinct.
Coreguaje - spoken at the sources of the Caquetá River, department of Cauca, Colombia.
Amaguaje / Encabellado / Rumo - extinct language once spoken on the Aguarico River, department of Loreto, Peru.
Siona / Zeona / Ceño / Kokakañú - language spoken at the sources of the Putumayo River and Caquetá River, Putumayo territory, Colombia.
Ificuene - spoken between the Güepi River and Aguarico River, Loreto. (Unattested.)
Eno - language spoken by a few individuals at the mouth of the San Miguel River, Caquetá territory, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Secoya - language spoken on the Putumayo River, Oriente province, Ecuador. (Johnson and Peeke 1962.)
Icaguate - extinct language once spoken on the Caucaya River and Putumayo River, Putumayo territory, Colombia.
Macaguaje - spoken in the same territory on the Mecaya River and Caucaya River and around Puerto Restrepo, by a few families.
Tetete / Eteteguaje - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Güepi River, Loreto. (Unattested.)
Pioje / Angotero / Ancutere - spoken on the Napo River, Tarapoto River, and Aguarico River, Loreto.
Cóto / Payoguaje - spoken at the mouth of the Napo River, Loreto, Peru.

Yahuna group

Yahuna / Jaúna - spoken on the Apoporis River, territory of Amazonas, Colombia.
Tanimuca / Opaina - spoken by a small tribe on the Popeyaca River and Guacayá River, Amazonas, Colombia.
Dätuana - spoken north of the preceding tribe on the Apoporis River.
Menimehe - spoken by a very little known tribe at the mouth of the Mirití-paraná River and Caquetá River. (Unattested.)

Yupua group

Yupua / Hiupiá - spoken on the Coca River, a tributary of the Apoporis River, Colombia.
Kushiita - once spoken at the mouth of the Apoporis River, state of Amazonas, Brazil. Now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Durina / Sokó - spoken on the Carapato River, Amazonas territory, Colombia.

Coretu group

Coretu / Kueretú - spoken on the Mirití-paraná River, state of Amazonas, Brazil.

Cubeo group

Cubeo / Kobéua / Kaniwa / Hahanana - spoken on the Caiarí River and Cuduiarí River, state of Amazonas, Brazil. Dialects are:
- Dyuremáwa / Yiboia-tapuya - spoken on the Querarí River, Amazonas.
- Bahukíwa / Bahuna - spoken by a tribe that originally spoke a language of the Arawak stock, on the Cuduiarí River.
- Hehénawa - spoken on the Cuduiarí River.
- Hölöua - spoken on the Cuduiarí River, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)

Särä group

Särä - spoken between the Tiquié River and Piraparaná River, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
Ömöa - spoken at the sources of the Tiquié River, Colombia.
Buhágana / Karawatana - spoken on the Piraparaná River, Colombia.
Macuna - spoken at the mouth of the Apoporis River, Colombia.

Erulia group

Erulia / Paboa / Eduria - spoken on the Piraparaná River, Colombia.
Tsaloa - spoken on the Piraparaná River.
Palänoa - spoken on the middle course of the Piraparaná River.

Desána group

Desána / Wína / Vina - spoken between the Tiquié River and Caiarí River, partly in Colombia and partly in Brazil.
Chiránga / Siriána - spoken on the Paca-igarapé River, Colombia.

Tucano group

Tucano / Tocano / Dace / Dagseje / Dajseá / Tocana - language of a large tribe that lived on the Vaupés and Tiquié River; state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Uaíana - on the Caiary River, Colombia.
Tuyuca / Doxcapura - spoken on the Tiquié River and Papury River, partly in Brazil, partly in Colombia.
Arapaso / Koréa - extinct language once spoken on the Yapú River, Amazonas, Brazil. The last survivors now speak only Tucano. (Unattested.)
Waikína / Uiquina / Uaíkana / Pira-tapuya - spoken on the Papury River, Colombia.
Uantya / Puçá-tapuya - once spoken on the Macú-igarapé River, Colombia.
Bará / Pocanga - spoken at the sources of the Tiquié River, Colombia.
Uasöna / Pisa-tapuya - spoken on the Caiary River, Colombia.
Tsölá / Teiuana - spoken on the Tiquié River and Piraparaná River, Colombia.
Urubú-tapuyo - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Caiary River, Colombia.
Pamöá / Tatú-tapuyo - spoken at the sources of the Papury River and on the Tuyigarapé, Colombia.
Patsoca / Iuruty-tapuyo - once spoken on the Abio River and Apoporis River, Colombia.
Möxdöá / Carapana-tapuya - spoken between the Papury River and Caiary River, Colombia.
Uanána / Wanána / Kotédia - spoken on the Caiarí River near the Cachoeira dos Araras, Brazil.

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items.^[4]

Language	Branch	head	eye	hand	one	two	three
Tucano	I	dex-póa	kaxpéri	tomógha	nĩkáno	peáro	itiáro
Uaíana	I	dé-paue	kape	oama	ikãpeleko	peápeleko	itiapeleko
Tuyuca	I	déx-píu	kaxfea	uamo	txixkálo	peálo	ixtiéro
Waikína	I	dax-púa	káxfea	umuká	axkakiró	péaro	tíaro
Uantya	I		kapéga	uamó
Bará	I	dex-féa	kapéka	anó	hixkága	peága	tixtíaga
Uanána	I	dax-púa	kaxpádi	dapáro	kéliã	peáro	tíaro
Uasöna	II	de-póue	káxea	oámu	hikálo	peálo	itíalo
Tsölá	II	rix-fóa	kuíri	ámo	híkã	péga	ixtíale
Urubu-Tapuya	II		re-kapeã	uamon
Pamöä	II	rea-poá	kapé	uamon
Patsoca	II		kapé	uamó
Möxdöá	II	rea-poa	kapea	oamó	hikän	pángara	éteaná
Sära	Sära	lix-hóga	káxea	áma	hohogá	héaga	ediaga
Omöá	Sära	dix-hóga	káxea		hóga	héaga	ediago
Buhágana	Sära	tix-hóga	kaxea	ámo	kohága	héaga	ediága
Macuna	Sära	ri-hóga	kaea	ámo
Erulia	Erulia	lix-hóga	káxfea	uamó	kóla	héãlã	edíala
Tsölöa	Erulia	rix-hóa	káxea	ámo	gohé	héa	idía
Palanoa	Erulia	lix-hoá	káxea	ámo
Cubeo	Cubeo	hi-póbe	hi-yakóli	pubu	kũinálõ	pekálõã	dópekelõã
Dyuremáwa	Cubeo	hi-póbi	dya-kóli	pilí	kuináro	pikáro	dyobekiro
Hehénawa	Cubeo	hi-póbí	ya-kóli	pilí	kwináro	pikaːro	yobekiro
Bahúkiwa	Cubeo	hí-póbi	dyá-koli	pilí	kuinárõã	pikárõã	dyóbekirõã
Desána	Desána	dex-púru	yéle	mohópama	yũhúge	péye	eléye
Chiranga	Desána	dix-púlu	kudiru	muhá	uhúpũnu	perú	ilerú
Yahuna	Yahuna	líupukóa	hiyakóli	pitaka	ínoho	ípo	makalaka
Tanimuca	Yahuna	dupukoa	ñákua	pitaka
Yupuá	Yupuá	kúele	yaːkõá	múho	tzyundyá	axpedyá	aleddyá
Durina	Yupuá	kúrʔ	díölö	móhu	chun	apáina	áʔalia
Coretu	Coretu	sí-roho	sia-kokia	muhú	námare	nahárakiare	masírakiáre
Tama	Western	xixo-pué	nakoba		teyo	káyapa	choteyo
Coreguaje	Western	sixó-pués	nankoká	xẽte
Amaguaje	Western	zium-bue	nañka	hente	teo	kayapa	toazumba
Icaguate	Western			hente			toazumba
Siona	Western	sixum-bué	nankoka	enté	teheke	samú
Pjoje	Western	siom-pwö	nánkoa	höntö	tayo	kayayé	toasoñé
Cóto	Western	tsíong	ñákoa	óteperé	teyong	tépe	báwabwö

Language	Branch	water	fire	sun	star	maize	jaguar	axe
Tucano	I	axkó	pexkáme	mũhípũ	yãxkõá	ohóka	yaí	kumé
Uaíana	I	óko	pekáne	muhĩpü	yõkõá	olikaleko	yéi	kóme
Tuyuca	I	oxkó	pexkámene	mũhĩphfu	yãxkõá	ohólika	yéi	kumé
Waikína	I	axkó	pexkáka	axsé	yapíkoa	yó	nodogé	komé
Uantya	I	óko	pekáme	muipem	ñokoam		yahi	kumúa
Bará	I	oxkó	pexkáme	mũhífũ	yöxkóã	ódixka	yeído	kómea
Uanána	I	kó	pxtxáka	sé	yapítxoa	iyó	yaído	kúma
Uasöna	II	óko	pekáme	múhípe	yókóaː	olíka	yái	komé
Tsölá	II	óxko	péro	múhífú	yóxkõã	ohólika	yái	kómea
Urubu-Tapuya	II	óko	péro	muipem	ñokon	oriká		kumuá
Pamöä	II	hokó	paʔáro	muipem	yakopaké	oriká		kumuä
Patsoca	II	óko	pekaró	muipum	ñonkóãn	oriká	dyahi	komé
Möxdöá	II	okó	péro	moépo		áríka	yáhi	koméa
Sära	Sära	ida	péame	ómakani	yoxkó	ohólika	yái	kómea
Omöá	Sära	éde	heáme	amakai	yoxkoá	ohólika	yái	kumá
Buhágana	Sära	íde	héame	ómãkãyi	yóxko	oholika	yái	kumá
Macuna	Sära	íde	éa	úmakanö	tapia	áre	yáiya
Erulia	Erulia	óxko	heáme	mũhihũ	yõxkóã	ohólika	yái	kumá
Tsölöa	Erulia	oxkó	heáno	muhíhú	yoxkó	ohólika	yáí	kúmoa
Palanoa	Erulia	óxko	heáne	muhíhu	yoxkó	ohólika	yái	kúmoa
Cubeo	Cubeo	okó	toá	auiyá	abiákoa	ueá	yauí	kométako
Dyuremáwa	Cubeo	okó	toábo	avía	abíakoli	veá	dyaví	hoekí
Hehénawa	Cubeo	okó	toábo	aviá	abíakoli	veá	yawí	hoéki
Bahúkiwa	Cubeo	okó	toaːbo	aviá	abiákoli	veá	dyaví	hoekí
Desána	Desána	dexkó	peáme	abé	néyãxkã	ohólexka	ye	kumé
Chiranga	Desána	dexko	piámeʔe	abé	naiukamo	húdeka	diéche	kumé
Yahuna	Yahuna	ókoa	peká	ihía	tãapíã	oáka	yaia	kómeá
Tanimuca	Yahuna	ókoa	peka	ayáka	tapia	wáka	yáiya
Yupuá	Yupuá	déxko	píele	aué	yóxkólo	óo	yí	kúmi
Durina	Yupuá		pílö	áwe	yokolo	óho	diwórekö	kúmi
Coretu	Coretu	kótapu	hékiekie	háya	yákohe	mitólikere	híyai	kumú
Tama	Western	okó	toá	enesé	mañeguai	keá	edyai	supo
Coreguaje	Western	óko	toá	ense	mañokó	weá	chaí	supú
Amaguaje	Western	óko	toa	ense	manúko	bea	ayroyai	supó
Icaguate	Western		toa	enze	mañoko
Siona	Western	oko	toá	ensé	mañoko	gueá	ayroxai	supó
Pjoje	Western	ókó	towá	öntsö	mánioko	wéa	yaí	súpo
Cóto	Western	óko	towaʔa	báñi	túku	béa	yái	dzöʔó

Proto-language

Proto-Tukanoan reconstructions by Chacon (2013):^[5]

gloss	proto-Tukanoan
3rd.person.masculine	*-pi
agouti	*wuɨ
ant sp.	*meka
aracu fish^[6]	*p’ot’ika
armadillo	*pãmu
back	*sõkɨ
bat	*ojo
big	*pahi
(to) bite	*kũ
black	*tj’ĩ
black ink (jenipapo)	*weʔe
blood	*tj’ie
blow	*pu-
bone	*k’oʔa
(to) break	p’ope (poa)
breast	*upe
buriti palm	*neʔe
capybara	*kuetju
cara (Dioscorea alata)	*japi
case	*-t’e
centipede; boa	*jãk’i
charcoal (1)	*nitti
charcoal (2); grease	*neo
cheek	*wajo
chew	*tj’ãk’ɨ
chili	*p’ia
cold	*tjɨsi
kapok	*jɨi
(to) cut	*t’ɨtte
dance / ritualized songs	*p’aja
deer	*jama
dove	*ƭʃɨ-
duck	*p’ete
ear	*k’ãp’o
egg	*tj’ia
elder	*p’ɨkɨ
elevated structure (shelves, roof, etc.) (jirau)	*kaja
(to) end	*pet’i
excrement	*k’ɨt’a
face	*tj’ia
father	*pa-kɨ
feminine	*-k’o
fire / firewood	*peka
fish; fish sp. (?)	*waʔi
(to) fish with a net; strain, remove	*wajo
fishing net	*p’api
float	*paʔja
flower	*k’oʔo
foot	*k’ɨp’o
fruit sp.	*toa
Inga (fruit sp.)	*p’ene
garden; outside; village	*wese
gather / collect	*tʃɨ-a
grandfather	*jẽkku-
grape	*ɨʔje
grass	*taja
green / blue / not ripe	*tjɨ̃p’e
hand; palm (of the hand)	*pɨtɨ
head	*tj’ɨpo
heavy	*t’ɨkkɨ
heron	*jahi
hole	*k’ope
hot; heat	*atjɨ
house; anthill	*wɨ’e
hummingbird	*mimi
I	*jɨʔɨ
insect sp.	*tjusi
jaguar	*jai
kingfisher	*tjãsa
know	*masi
lake	*tj’itta
land / territory / region	*jep’a
larva	*p’ekko
leg; hips; knee	*jɨ̃ka
locative / part-of-a-whole	*-t’o
distant	*tj’oa
macaw	*maha
man	*ɨmɨ
manioc	*kɨi
monkey	*takke
monkey sp. / coati	*sisi
mosquito	*mɨte
mouth	tj’ɨse (jɨ-ʔo)
name	*wãmi
navel	*tʃõp’ɨ
non-3rd animate person	-p’ɨ
nose	*ɨ̃kʷ’e
paca	*seme
pacu fish	*uhu
palm weevil	*pĩko
parrot	*wekko
path	*maʔa
peccary	*tjẽse
penis	*no-
people; 1.pl.inclusive	*p’ã-tjã
(to) plant	*otte
poison	*tjima
pot / ceramics / clay	*sot-
pupunha palm	*ɨne
red	*sõʔa
river	*tj’ia
root	*t’ɨ̃k ’o
(to) rub	*sĩk’e
(to) sit
(to) sleep	*kã-
(to) smoke meat	*sɨʔjo
snake	*ãja
spider	*p’ɨpɨ
spirit; ancestral	*wãtti
(to) squeeze	*p’ipo
(to) stop	*nɨk’V
stone	*k’ɨ̃ta
stump; stick, club	*tu-tu
(to) swell	*p’upi
tapir	*wekkɨ
termite	*p’utu
thorn; fishhook	*pota
three	*ɨt’ia
thunder	*wɨ̃po
toad sp.	*p’opa
tobacco	*mɨt’o
tocandira ant	*piata
tongue / liver	*tj’eme
tooth	*k’õpi
tortoise; turtle	*k’oɨ
toucan	*tj’ase (?)
traira fish	*t’oje
tree	*tjũkkɨ
(to) urinate	*k’one
urucum (achiote)	*p’õsa
(to) wait	*kʷɨt’e
wasp	*utti
water	*okko
white; whitewash	*p’o-
wife	*t’ɨ̃po
wind	*wĩno
woman	*t’õmi-
woodpecker	*kone
yam	*jãp’o
you all	*mɨ-tja

References

^ ^a ^b Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília.
^ Chacon, Thiago (2014). "A Revised Proposal of Proto-Tukanoan Consonants and Tukanoan Family Classification". International Journal of American Linguistics. 80 (3): 275–322. doi:10.1086/676393. S2CID 147252620.
^ Nikulin, Andrey V. 2019. The classification of the languages of the South American Lowlands: State-of-the-art and challenges / Классификация языков востока Южной Америки. Illič-Svityč (Nostratic) Seminar / Ностратический семинар, Higher School of Economics, October 17, 2019.
^ ^a ^b Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
^ Chacon, Thiago (2013). On Proto-Languages and Archaeological Cultures: pre-history and material culture in the Tukanoan Family. In Revista Brasileira de Linguística Antropológica. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 217-245.
^ Aracus. amazonwaters.org

Bibliography

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Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70414-3.
Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.