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Awabakal
Awabakal
Hunter River – Lake Macquarie
Native to	Eastern New South Wales, Australia
Region	Lake Macquarie, Newcastle
Ethnicity	Awabakal, Geawegal, Wonnarua
Extinct	late 19th century
Revival	early stages of revival
Language family	Pama–Nyungan Yuin–Kuric Kuri Worimi Awabakal; ; ; ;
Dialects	Awabagal; Geawegal; Wonarua;
Language codes
ISO 639-3	awk
Linguist List	awk.html
Glottolog	awab1243
AIATSIS	S66
ELP	Awabakal

Awabakal (also Awabagal or the Hunter River – Lake Macquarie, often abbreviated HRLM language) is an Australian Aboriginal language that was spoken around Lake Macquarie and Newcastle in New South Wales. The name is derived from Awaba, which was the native name of the lake. It was spoken by Awabakal and Wonnarua peoples.

It was studied by missionary Lancelot Threlkeld in the 19th century, who wrote a grammar of the language, but the spoken language had died out before 21st-century revival efforts.

Classification

Awabakal is a Pama–Nyungan language, most closely related to the Worimi language, within the Yuin–Kuric group of Pama–Nyungan.

History

Awabakal was studied by the Reverend Lancelot Threlkeld from 1825 until his death in 1859, producing a grammar and dictionary in An Australian Grammar in 1834.^[3] The speaker of Awabakal who taught him about the language was Biraban, the tribal leader. Threlkeld and Biraban's Specimens of a Dialect of the Aborigines of New South Wales in 1827 was the earliest attempt at exhibiting the structure of an Australian language.^[4]

Threlkeld's work was greatly expanded by John Fraser and republished in 1892 as An Australian language as spoken by the Awabakal, the people of Awaba or Lake Macquarie (near Newcastle, New South Wales) being an account of their language, traditions and customs / by L.E. Threlkeld; re-arranged, condensed and edited with an appendix by John Fraser.^[5] It contained a grammar and vocabulary as well as much new material by Fraser, and helped to popularise the name "Awabakal" for the language grouping more broadly referred to as the Hunter River-Lake Macquarie language.^[4]

Modern revival

The language is currently being revived. A new orthography and reconstruction of the phonology has been undertaken. To date, several publications have been produced including "A grammar for the Awabakal language",^[6] "An introduction to the Awabakal language : its orthography, recommended orthoepy and its grammar and stylistics "^[7] and "Nupaleyalaan palii Awabakalkoba = Teach yourself Awabakal".^[8]

Phonology

Consonants

	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Plosive	p	t	c	k
Nasal	m	n	ɲ	ŋ
Trill		r
Lateral		l
Approximant	w	ɹ	j

Stop sounds /p, t, c, k/ may also be heard as voiced [b, d, ɟ, ɡ] in free variation among speakers.
Palatal sounds /c/, /ɲ/ may also have dental allophones as [t̪, d̪], [n̪].

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i		u
Open		a

Vowel length may or may not be distinctive.^[9]

Grammar

Nouns

There exist three noun classes. The first has 4 declension patterns. A noun can exist in any of 13 cases.

1st class – Common nouns, descriptors, demonstratives and minaring 'what?'
2nd class – Place names, words of spatial relations and wonta 'where?'
3rd class – Personal names, kinship terms, and ngaan 'who?'

The default, unmarked case of nouns is the absolutive. Unlike English and many European languages, in which an unmarked noun is the nominative case, and is (in the active voice) the subject of the sentence, Awabakal merely references a particular noun with this case.

Descriptors

There is a category of words in Awabakal called descriptors. They can stand as referring terms and are in these cases similar to nouns, like adjectives or intransitive verbs/predicative verb-adjective phrases. They can be declined into nominal cases.

Numbers

There are four number words.

wakool 'one'
bulowara 'two'
ngoro 'three'
wara 'four, five' (also 'palm of the hand', a metaphorical extension of 'a handful of')

Pronominal enclitics

Pronominal enclitics are suffixes which have several functions and can be attached to verbs, descriptors, appositions, interrogatives, negatives and nouns. The numbers are: singular, dual and plural with a feminine/masculine distinction in the first person. They mark verbs for person, number, case and voice. The "ergative" enclitcs imply an active transitive situation and the "accusative" implies a passive intransitive situation. There are three true pronouns which could be called a nominative or topic case. There are only found at the beginning of an independent clause. These pronominals are found in ergative, accusative, dative and possessive cases.

Demonstratives

There are 3 degrees. They are declined for 10 cases.

'this' near the speaker
'that' near the addressee(s)
'that' there (but at hand)

Appositive demonstratives

Here too, there are 3 degrees. These terms indicate place. They decline for 13 cases.

Verbs

The default verbative voice of Awabakal verbs is neutral, i.e., they do not give a sense of active or passive. The pronominal enclitics indicate which voice the verb should be analysed as being in. There are 3 present tenses, 8 future and 7 past, with various voice, aspect and mood modifications.

1)

Kariwangku minaring tataan?

kariwang+ku

magpie+ERG

minaring

what(ABS)

ta+taan?

eat+PRES

'What does the magpie eat?'

2)

Minaringku kariwang tataan?

minaring+ku

what+ERG

kariwang

magpie(ABS)

ta+taan

eat+PRES

'What eats the magpie?'

Negatives

There are 10 forms of negatives which work with different types of words or phrases.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are not commonly used in comparison to many languages. Sentences can often be connected without their use. These also have various combinations and case declinations.

Interrogatives

Traditional lands of Australian Aboriginal tribes of eastern New South Wales^[10]

ngaan 'who?'
minaring 'what?'
wonta 'where?'
yakowai 'how?'
yakowanta 'when?'
iorakowa 'why not?'
wiya 'say (how about) ...'

Sample texts

Wonto ba kauwȧllo mankulla unnoa tara túġunbilliko ġurránto ġéen kinba,

2. Yanti bo ġearun kin bara ġukulla, unnoa tara nakillikan kurri-kurri kabiruġ ġatun mankillikan wiyellikanne koba.

3. Murrȧrȧġ tia kȧtan yantibo, koito baġ ba tuiġ ko ġirouġ Teopolo murrȧrȧġ ta,

4. Gurra-uwil koa bi tuloa, unnoa tara wiyatoara banuġ ba.

—Introduction of the Gospel of Luke^[11]

The Lord's Prayer

Below is the Lord's Prayer in Awabakal, according to the Gospel of Luke.^[12] Part of the Gospel of Luke was translated into Awabakal in 1892 and below the text reflects the orthography of the prayer in 1892.

Ġatun noa wiya barun, wiyånůn ba,
ġiakai wiyånůn nura,
Biyuġbai ġearúmba wokka ka ba moroko ka ba kåtan, Kåmůnbilla yitirra ġiroúmba.
Ġurrabunbilla wiyellikanne ġiroúmba,
yanti moroko ka ba, yanti ta purrai ta ba.
Ġuwoa ġearún purreåġ ka takilliko.
Ġatun warekilla ġearúnba yarakai umatoara,
kulla ġéen yanti ta wareka yanti ta wiyapaiyeůn ġearúnba.
Ġatun yuti yikpra ġearún yarakai umullikan kolaġ;
mitomulla ġearún yarakai tabiruġ.

Influence on English

The word Koori, a self-referential term used by some Aboriginal people, comes from Awabakal.^[13]

Bibliography

19th century

Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward (1827). Specimens of a Dialect of the Aborigines of New South Wales; Being the first attempt to form their speech into a written language. Sydney: printed at the 'Monitor Office,' by Arthur Hill.
Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward (1834). An Australian grammar: comprehending the principles and natural rules of the language, as spoken by the Aborigines in the vicinity of Hunter's River, Lake Macquarie, &c. New South Wales. Printed by Stephens and Stokes. hdl:2440/61558.
Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward (1836). An Australian spelling book in the language as spoken by the Aborigines in the vicinity of Hunter's River, Lake Macquarie, New South Wales. Sydney: Stephens and Stokes, 'Herald Office'.
Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward (1850). A key to the structure of the Aboriginal language; being an analysis of the particles used as affixes, to form the various modifications of the verbs; shewing the essential powers, abstract roots, and other peculiarities of the language spoken by the Aborigines in the vicinity of Hunter River, Lake Macquarie, etc., New South Wales: together with comparisons of Polynesian and other dialects. Sydney: Kemp and Fairfax.
Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward (1858). "Language of the Australian Aborigines". Waugh's Australian Almanac for the Year 1858. pp. 60–80.
Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward (1892). Fraser, John (ed.). An Australian language as spoken by the Awabakal, the people of Awaba or Lake Macquarie (near Newcastle, New South Wales): being an account of their language, traditions and customs. Charles Potter, Govt. Printer. (NLA catalogue entry)

21st century

Arposio, Alex (2009) [First published early 2008. Revised edition published November 2008. Reprinted August 2009]. A grammar for the Awabakal language (Rev. ed.). Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association.
Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association (2010). Awabakal dictionary (Research ed.). Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association. ISBN 978-0-9804680-8-3.

References

^ Dixon, R. M. W. (2002). Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development. Cambridge University Press. p. xxxiv.
^ S66 Awabakal at the Australian Indigenous Languages Database, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
^ Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward; White, Henry Luke; Cowper, Charles; Dunlop, James; Ellis, William (1834). An Australian grammar: comprehending the principles and natural rules of the language, as spoken by the Aborigines in the vicinity of Hunter's River, Lake Macquarie, &c. New South Wales. Printed by Stephens and Stokes. Retrieved 23 November 2019. Scan1 Scan2
^ ^a ^b Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward; Biraban, H. Livingstone; George Taplin; James Günther; William Grant Broughton; William Ridley (1892). An Australian language as spoken by the Awabakal, the people of Awaba, or lake Macquarie (near Newcastle, New South Wales): being an account of their language, traditions, and customs. C. Potter, Govt. Printer. An Australian language as spoken by the Awabakal, the people of Awaba, or lake Macquarie.
^ Threlkeld, Lancelot Edward; Fraser, John; Taplin, George; Ridley, William; Livingstone, H; Günther, James; Broughton, William Grant (1892). An Australian language as spoken by the Awabakal, the people of Awaba or Lake Macquarie (near Newcastle, New South Wales): being an account of their language, traditions and customs. Charles Potter, Govt. Printer. Retrieved 23 November 2019 – via Internet Archive. Re-arranged, condensed and edited with an appendix by John Fraser (NLA catalogue entry)
^ Arposio, Alex; Threlkeld, L. E. (Lancelot Edward), 1788-1859; Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association (2008), A grammar for the Awabakal language (Rev. (Nov 2008) ed.), Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association, retrieved 26 June 2019{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ Arposio, Alex; Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association Inc (2009), An introduction to the Awabakal language : its orthography, recommended orthoepy and its grammar and stylistics (Rev. ed.), Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association, ISBN 978-0-9804680-5-2
^ Arposio, Alex; Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association Inc (2010), Nupaleyalaan palii Awabakalkoba = Teach yourself Awabakal, Arwarbukarl Cultural Resource Association Inc, ISBN 978-0-9804680-2-1
^ Lissarrague, Amanda (2006). A salvage grammar and wordlist of the language from the Hunter River and Lake Macquarie. Nambucca Heads, NSW: Muurrbay Language and Culture Centre.
^ This map is indicative only.
^ This orthography is from the original works of Threlkeld. A new orthography was created in 2004.
^ "Awabakal Rosary Prayers".
^ Oxford Dictionary of English, 3rd ed., p 977.