Due to the growing concern of their language becoming extinct, the elders to maintain the use of Bunuba by passing on stories to younger community members around campfires at night. This is a way for Bunuba elders to prevent the extinction of their language, by passing it down through generations.[7] Language maintenance and revival has increased during the later decades of the 20th century and the early 21st century due to the growing documentation of Bunuba language, and the production of resources that have been written and used by Bunuba community members.
The modern phase of Australian Aboriginal Language research employs a descriptive approach that is grammar-oriented.[8] Howard Coate documented Bunuba in the mid-1960s, applying new approaches and modern linguistic research methods to his contributions.[8] In particular, he produced audio recordings of Bunuba dialogue which is also now located at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies.[10] Australian linguist Alan Rumsey has extensively contributed to detailed linguistic coverage of Bunuba from the 1970s until the 1990s whilst working with the local Bunuba community.[5] Rumsey has focused on syntax and producing a Bunuba grammar; notably phonology, morphology, and the person/number system.
Capell classified Bunuba as a non-classifying language of the Fitzroy basin region, alongside Guniyandi.[9] Bunuba is non-classifying in that it does not rely on the use of noun classes nor grammatical gender.[8] For example, Bunuba does not have gendered pronouns, rather it uses a singular 'they' pronoun niyiŋga for third-person singular 'he', 'she', and 'it'.[11]
Similarities between Bunuba and other non-Pama-Nyungan languages
Non-Pama-Nyungan Language
Percentage of Similarity
Guniyandi
45%
Ungarinyin
24%
Walmajarri
24%
Kija
20%
Unggumi
20%
Nyikina
15%
Warrwa
11%
Relationship to Guniyandi
Although Guniyandi is the most similar language to Bunuba based on linguistic typology, they are not mutually intelligible, rather they are subgroups of the overarching Bunuban family language group.[8] Based on Hale's list of 100 foundational words, approximately 45% of Bunuba vocabulary is shared with Guniyandi; this percentage determines their relationship as subgroups of the larger language group.[8]
Dialect variation
There are two regional Bunuba dialects which are distinguished based on where they are geographically spoken within Bunuba Country.[5] In the eastern and southern regions of Bunuba Country, a 'light' Bunuba dialect if spoken.[6] In the northern and western regions a 'heavy' dialect is used, which is also known as Unggumi Bunuba in reference to the similarities that it shares with Unggumi language spoken by the Unggumi peoples in the region north-west of Bunuba Country.[5][6]
The main contrast between light and heavy Bunuba dialects is based on the phonological differences that are characteristic of Unggumi.[6] For example, the light Bunuba dialect utilises a /y/ phoneme in place of /yh/ which is more common in the heavy dialect.[6] This variation is present in dialectal differences between the words for 'meat' with light dialect speakers utilising /miya/ and heavy dialect speakers adhering to the older pronunciation of /miyha/. The use of /y/ and /yh/ causes /miya/ and /miyha/ to become a minimal pair.[5][6] Generally, Bunuba dialectal differences do not present problems in understanding between speakers of each dialect.[5]
Phonology
IPA broad transcription is in /slashes/, and orthography spelling in ⟨brackets⟩.
Bunuba, like some of its neighbouring Kimberley languages, has six articulation points that determine the articulatory differences between stops and nasals.[8] These are bilabial articulation, velar articulation, dental articulation, palatal articulation, alveolar articulation, and retroflex articulation.[8] These are grouped together into more general places of articulation based on tongue placement. Bilabial and velar articulations are grouped together as peripherals because their pronunciation requires articulation at the front and back peripheries of the mouth.[8] Dental and palatal articulations are groups under laminals as they utilise the larger central body of the tongue during pronunciation.[8] Alveolar and retroflex are grouped as apicals because they use the tongue tip.[8]
Word initial stops are either voiced or non-aspirated and voiceless.[6] They are also fully voiced when they occur in any other place in a word.[6] In words that are expressively or emotionally emphasised, the stop can become aspirated.[6] For example, when a mother firmly addresses her son with 'son' [‘cʰukʰu].[6]
Laterals
Bunuba utilises three laterals that are common to almost all Kimberley languages: ⟨l⟩, ⟨rl⟩, and ⟨ly⟩.[8] For all three, the tip of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth.[6] The distinguishing articulatory factor is the larger central body of the tongue, which is situated low for ⟨rl⟩, central for ⟨l⟩ and high for ⟨ly⟩.(rum) [ɭ]⟨rl⟩ is depicted as ⟨l⟩ in Bunuba orthography.[6]
The Bunuba [w] and [j] are akin to English pronunciations of ⟨w⟩ and ⟨y⟩ respectively.[8] The pronunciation of the dental glide⟨yh⟩ requires a lateral spreading of the tongue, with an articulatory point similar to those of ⟨nh⟩ and ⟨th⟩.[6] This glide is unique to Bunuba and the neighbouring language of Unggumi.[6] It is also the distinguishing factor between light and heavy Bunuba dialects.
Vowels
Bunuba has only three basic vowel phonemes: /i, a, u/.
/a/ is the only vowel demonstrating contrastive vowel length.[5]
Nominals in Bunuba are free lexemes which morphemes can be added to.[6] This is central to its distinction as a polysynthetic language.
Verbal words
Bunuba verbs contain affixes; a preverb, and an auxiliary.[6] Depending on the verb, the two affixes can take on individual word meanings, or add meaning to the root verb.[6]
Adverbs
Bunuba adverbs are not the same as aforementioned verbal words, as they are standalone words which affixes cannot be added on to.[6]
Pronouns
Pronouns contain numeric distinctions in the root of the word.[6]
Bunuba utilises reduplication to indicate plurality.[8] Bunuba uses both partial and total reduplication.[8] Partial reduplication requires a repetition of only a certain part of the root word, whilst total reduplication uses a repetition of the whole root word.[8]
gililandirri 'very big' stemming from gilandirri 'big'
Typology
Morphological Typology
Bunuba is a polysynthetic language; words consist of multiple morphemes, which can also have meanings independent of their position in a polysynthetic word.[6]
Documentation and revival
Kimberley Language Resource Centre
The Kimberley Language Resource Centre (KLRC) was established in 1984 with the role of revitalising, maintaining, and promoting Australian Aboriginal languages.[12]
Community engagement
A main aim of KLRC is to assist with career opportunities that cater to the cross-cultural and language needs of Kimberley language groups.[12] This is done by providing training for community members of language groups in order to increase chances of employment in sectors that can cater to their linguistic needs.[12]
Bunuba orthography
Prior to 1989, linguistic research on Bunuba has not followed a specific orthography, leading to possible discrepancies between lexical items. To improve linguistic clarity, KLRC assisted approximately twenty local Bunuba speakers in producing an orthography for the language in 1989.[6] The orthography was then utilised in 1991 to create an illustrated Bunuba wordbook that continues to be used in the teaching and learning of the language.[6]
Written, audio, and video documentation
KLRC owns archives of linguistic material from the 1950s until present, that have been provided by Australian linguists and language workers who have researched Aboriginal languages of the Kimberley Region.[6] Apart from storing archival material at the resource centre, KLRC works alongside the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) to return language resources back to Indigenous communities.[12] Resources include documentation from Howard Coate's research on Bunuban languages.[6] To increase the revitalisation and maintenance of Bunuba, KLRC owns archival documents of the language in audio, video, and book formats.[13]
Thangani Bunuba (Bunuba Stories)
Thangani Bunuba is a collection of stories told by twelve Bunuba elders from the Fitzroy River region.[14] The creation of this book was a project that aimed to revive and maintain the Bunuba language and was undertaken at the request of the Bunuba elders who sought after a way for the language to be preserved.[14] The elders worked alongside linguists and language workers from the KLRC in order to translate the stories into English.[14]
Stories were shared by the elders alongside the traditional paintings that are featured in the book.[14] The process of creating this book required audio recordings of each story to be produced, which were able to be transcribed and later translated into English by Bunuba speakers and linguists.[14] The book also contains a 'Guide to Bunuba Pronunciation' which consists of an orthography of Bunuba with a phonetic assistance based on English pronunciation of the same vowels and consonants.[14]
Bunuba in theatre
The Story of Jandamarra
Jandamarra was an Aboriginal Australian man and a leader of the Bunuba people throughout the late 1800s.[15] Due to his proficiency in English he had a range of occupations including working for local police by looking after their horses.[15] Jandamarra became a stockman at Lillimooloora station, and was later employed as an Aboriginal tracker to assist in capturing Bunuba people.[15] He is mostly known for his role in organising and leading resistance against European settlers in the southern areas of the Kimberley Region.[15] Jandamarra's biography has been reproduced in different entertainment media formats, such as the 2008 stage play Jandamarra by Bunuba Films which included dialogue in Bunuba language.
Jandamarra (stage play)
The production of the 2008 stage play was based on the 1995 historical book Jandamarra and the Bunuba Resistance written in collaboration between historian Howard Pedersen and Bunuba elder Banjo Woorunmurra, of whom the story of Jandamarra was under senior custodianship.[16][17] The story of Jandamarra was adapted into the stage play Jandamarra which was produced by the Bunuba run company, Bunuba Films in co-production with the Black Swan State Theatre Company.[16][18] The stage play went on tour as The Jandamarra Returns Tour (2011) which ran from July to August, with thirteen performances altogether.[19] Tour locations included Broome, Kununurra, Lundja Community of Halls Creek, and Windjana Gorge, amassing 5,097 total audience members.[19]
To immerse audiences into the Bunuban storyline, a conscious decision was made by playwright, Steve Hawke to use Bunuba language and Kimberley Kriol for scenes that were situated in the Bunuban environment.[18] Linguists and language coaches were appointed during workshops arranged by the collaborating Bunuba Films and the Black Swan State Theatre company, between March and April 2007.[18] Bunuba language was integrated into the script through the work of four Bunuba women of linguistic and community leadership backgrounds: Mona Oscar, Patsy Bedford, June Oscar, and Selina Middleton.[18] They worked as translators to provide the back translations for surtitles. The script was translated from English into Bunuba, then translated back into English by the group of translators who ensured the maintenance of cultural salience.[18] The back translations were then projected onto a screen as surtitles for audiences to understand the scenes which depicted Bunuba language, culture, and country.[18] Bunuba elders taught the language to the actors, with lead actor, Damion Hunter undergoing Bunuba language coaching during the production phase in order to depict the main role of Jandamarra.[19] The use of Bunuba language included the performance of Yilimbirri Junba, a traditional song and dance carried out by Bunuba singers, dancers, and lawmen.[20]
^Anonymous (26 July 2019). "K5: Bunuba". collection.aiatsis.gov.au. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
^ abKnight, Emily (2008). "7. Hyperpolysemy in Bunuba, a Polysynthetic Language of the Kimberley, Western Australia". In Goddard, Cliff (ed.). Cross-Linguistic Semantics. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 206. ISBN9789027205698.
^ abcdefghKnight, Emily (2004). Aspects of Bunuba grammar and semantics. Armidale: University of New England.
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacRumsey, Alan. "Bunuba". In Dixon, R.M.W; Blake, B. J. (eds.). The Handbook of Australian Languages Volume 5. Oxford. pp. 35–154.
^ abcdefKimberley Language Resource Centre. (1998). Thangani Bunuba: Bunuba Stories. Kimberley Language Resource Centre.
^ abcdPedersen, Howard, "Jandamarra (1870–1897)", Australian Dictionary of Biography, Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, retrieved 10 January 2022
