The ibis (/ˈaɪbɪs/) (collective plural ibises;[1] classical plurals ibides[2][3] and ibes[3]) are a group of long-legged wading birds in the family Threskiornithidae that inhabit wetlands, forests and plains.[4] "Ibis" derives from the Latin and Ancient Greek word for this group of birds. It also occurs in the scientific name of the western cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) mistakenly identified in 1757 as being the sacred ibis.[5]
Description
Ibises all have long, downcurved bills, and usually feed as a group, probing mud for food items, usually crustaceans. They are monogamous and highly territorial while nesting and feeding.[4] Most nest in trees, often with spoonbills or herons. All extant species are capable of flight, but two extinct genera were flightless, namely the kiwi-like Apteribis in the Hawaiian Islands, and the peculiar Xenicibis in Jamaica.[4] The word ibis comes from Latinibis[6] from Greek ἶβις ibis from Egyptianhb, hīb.[7]
Species in taxonomic order
There are 29 extant species and 4 extinct species of ibis.
An extinct species, the Jamaican ibis or clubbed-wing ibis (Xenicibis xympithecus) was uniquely characterized by its club-like wings. Extinct ibis species include the following:
Geronticus perplexus. Discovered in France. It is known only from a piece of distal right humerus, found at SansanFrance, in Middle Miocene rocks. It appears to represent an ancient member of the Geronticus lineage, in line with the theory that most living ibis genera seem to have evolved before 15 million years ago (mya).[11]
Geronticus apelex. Discovered in South Africa.[12]
Geronticus balcanicus. Discovered in Bulgaria.[13]
Most ibises are freshwater wetland birds using natural marshes, ponds, lakes, riversides for foraging.[16] Some ibis species such as the white-faced ibis,[17] and black-headed ibis[18] benefit from flooded and irrigated agriculture. The Andean ibis is unusual in being found in high altitude grasslands of South America.[19] The foraging and nesting behaviour, and fluctuating numbers of the white ibis matches closely with water levels in the Everglades ecosystem leading to its selection as a potential indicator species for the system.[20] Few ibis species such as the olive ibis and green ibis are also found in dense forests. The Llanos grasslands of Venezuela have the highest global ibis diversity with seven species sharing the marshes and grasslands.[21] Multiple ibis species manage to use the same area by exhibiting differences in the habitats used and the prey eaten. In Indian agricultural landscapes, three ibis species manage to live together by altering the habitats they use seasonally with the Black-headed Ibises and Glossy preferring shallow wetlands throughout the year, while the endemic Red-naped Ibises preferred upland areas thereby entirely avoiding potential competitive interactions.[22]
Breeding
Ibises breeding habits are very diverse. Many ibises such as the black-headed Ibis, scarlet ibis, glossy ibis, American white ibis and Australian white ibis breed in large colonies on trees.[16] Nest trees are located either in large wetlands or in agricultural fields, with many species like the red-naped ibis breeding inside cities.[23] The Australian white ibis also breeds extensively inside cities and has greatly expanded its population.[24] The white-faced ibis sometimes nests on dry land and on low shrubs in marshes.[25]
In culture
The African sacred ibis was an object of religious veneration in ancient Egypt,[26] particularly associated with the deity Djehuty or otherwise commonly referred to in Greek as Thoth. He is responsible for writing, mathematics, measurement, and time as well as the moon and magic.[27] In artworks of the Late Period of Ancient Egypt, Thoth is popularly depicted as an ibis-headed man in the act of writing.[27] However, Mitogenomic diversity in sacred ibis mummies indicates that ancient Egyptians captured the birds from the wild rather than farming them.[28]
At the town of Hermopolis, ibises were reared specifically for sacrificial purposes, and in the Ibis Galleries at Saqqara, archaeologists found the mummies of one and a half million ibises.[29]
According to local legend in the Birecik area, the northern bald ibis was one of the first birds that Noah released from the Ark as a symbol of fertility,[30] and a lingering religious sentiment in Turkey helped the colonies there to survive long after the demise of the species in Europe.[31][32]
The mascot of the University of Miami is an American white ibis named Sebastian. The ibis was selected as the school mascot because of its legendary bravery during hurricanes. According to legend, the ibis is the last of wildlife to take shelter before a hurricane hits and the first to reappear once the storm has passed.[33]
According to Josephus, Moses used the ibis to help him defeat the Ethiopians.[34]
The Australian white ibis has become a focus of art, pop culture, and memes since rapidly adapting to city life in recent decades, and has earned the popular nicknames "bin chicken" and "tip turkey".[35] In December 2017, the ibis placed second in Guardian Australia's inaugural Bird of the Year poll, after leading for much of the voting period.[36][37]
^There is still disagreement on how the taxonomic rules should apply to the Australian white ibis – both molluca and mollucus are currently used for the species.[8][9][10]
References
^"ibis". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Retrieved 6 October 2009.
^Schodde, Richard; Bock, Walter (2016). "Conflict resolution of grammar and gender for avian species-group names under Article 31.2. 2 of the ICZN Code: is gender agreement worth it?". Zootaxa. 4127 (1): 161–170. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4127.1.9. PMID27395618.
^Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002). Cenozoic Birds of the World (Part 1: Europe). Ninox Press, Prague. ISBN80-901105-3-3.
^Olson, S. L. (1985). "Early Pliocene ibises (Aves, Plataleidae) from south-western Cape Province, South Africa". Annals of the South African Museum. 97 (3): 57–69.
^Frederick, Peter C.; Bildstein, Keith L. (1992). "Foraging ecology of seven species of neotropical ibises (Threskiornithidae) during the dry season in the Llanos of Venezuela". The Wilson Bulletin. 104 (1): 1–21.
^Ceram, C. W. (1967). Gods, Graves, and Scholars: The Story of Archaeology. Translated by Garside, E. B.; Wilkins, Sophie (2nd ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 207.
^Shuker, Karl (2003). The Beasts That Hide from Man: Seeking the World's Last Undiscovered Animals. Cosimo. pp. 166–168. ISBN1-931044-64-3. "Dreams of a feathered Geronticus"
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