The Okinawan language (沖縄口, ウチナーグチ, Uchināguchi, [ʔut͡ɕinaːɡut͡ɕi]) or Central Okinawan is a Northern Ryukyuan language spoken primarily in the southern half of the island of Okinawa, as well as in the surrounding islands of Kerama, Kumejima, Tonaki, Aguni and a number of smaller peripheral islands.[4] Central Okinawan distinguishes itself from the speech of Northern Okinawa, which is classified independently as the Kunigami language. Both languages are listed by UNESCO as endangered.[5]
Though Okinawan encompasses a number of local dialects,[6] the Shuri–Naha variant is generally recognized as the de facto standard,[7] as it had been used as the official language of the Ryukyu Kingdom[8] since the reign of King Shō Shin (1477–1526). Moreover, as the former capital of Shuri was built around the royal palace, the language used by the royal court became the regional and literary standard,[8][7] which thus flourished in songs and poems written during that era.
Today, most Okinawans speak Okinawan Japanese, although a number of people still speak the Okinawan language, most often the elderly. Within Japan, Okinawan is often not seen as a language unto itself but is referred to as the Okinawan dialect (沖縄方言, Okinawa hōgen) or more specifically the Central and Southern Okinawan dialects (沖縄中南部諸方言, Okinawa Chūnanbu Sho hōgen). Okinawan speakers are undergoing language shift as they switch to Japanese, since language use in Okinawa today is far from stable. Okinawans are assimilating and accenting standard Japanese due to the similarity of the two languages, the standardized and centralized education system, the media, business and social contact with mainlanders and previous attempts from Japan to suppress the native languages.[9] Okinawan is still kept alive in popular music, tourist shows and in theaters featuring a local drama called uchinā shibai, which depict local customs and manners.[10]
History
Pre-Ryukyu Kingdom
Okinawan is a Japonic language, derived from Proto-Japonic and is therefore related to Japanese. The split between Old Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages has been estimated to have occurred as early as the 1st century AD to as late as the 12th century AD. Chinese and Japanese characters were first introduced by a Japanese missionary in 1265.[11]
Ryukyu Kingdom era
Pre-Satsuma
Hiragana was a much more popular writing system than kanji; thus, Okinawan poems were commonly written solely in hiragana or with little kanji. Okinawan became the official language under King Shō Shin. The Omoro Sōshi, a compilation of ancient Ryukyuan poems, was written in an early form of Okinawan, known as Old Okinawan.
Post-Satsuma to annexation
After Ryukyu became a vassal of Satsuma Domain, kanji gained more prominence in poetry; however, official Ryukyuan documents were written in Classical Chinese. During this time, the language gradually evolved into Modern Okinawan.
In 1609, the Ryukyu Kingdom was colonized by the Satsuma Domain in the south of Japan. However, Satsuma did not fully invade the Ryukyu in fear of colliding with China, which had a stronger trading relationship with the Ryukyu at the time.[12]
Japanese annexation to end of World War II
When Ryukyu was annexed by Japan in 1879, the majority of people on Okinawa Island spoke Okinawan. Within 10 years, the Japanese government began an assimilation policy of Japanization, where Ryukyuan languages were gradually suppressed. The education system was the heart of Japanization, where Okinawan children were taught Japanese and punished for speaking their native language, being told that their language was just a "dialect". By 1945, many Okinawans spoke Japanese, and many were bilingual. During the Battle of Okinawa, some Okinawans were killed by Japanese soldiers for speaking Okinawan.[citation needed]
Language shift to Japanese in Ryukyu/Okinawa began in 1879 when the Japanese government annexed Ryukyu and established Okinawa Prefecture. The prefectural office mainly consisted of people from Kagoshima Prefecture where the Satsuma Domain used to be. This caused the modernization of Okinawa as well as language shift to Japanese. As a result, Japanese became the standard language for administration, education, media, and literature.[12]
In 1902, the National Language Research Council (国語調査委員会) began the linguistic unification of Japan to Standard Japanese. This caused the linguistic stigmatization of many local varieties in Japan including Okinawan. As the discrimination accelerated, Okinawans themselves started to abandon their languages and shifted to Standard Japanese.[12]
American occupation
Under American administration, there was an attempt to revive and standardize Okinawan, but this proved difficult and was shelved in favor of Japanese. General Douglas MacArthur attempted to promote Okinawan languages and culture through education.[13] Multiple English words were introduced.
Return to Japan to present day
After Okinawa's reversion to Japanese sovereignty, Japanese continued to be the dominant language used, and the majority of the youngest generations only speak Okinawan Japanese. There have been attempts to revive Okinawan by notable people such as Byron Fija and Seijin Noborikawa, but few native Okinawans know the language.[14]
Outside of Japan
The Okinawan language is still spoken by communities of Okinawan immigrants in Brazil. The first immigrants from the island of Okinawa to Brazil landed in the Port of Santos in 1908 drawn by the hint of work and farmable land. Once in a new country and far from their homeland, they found themselves in a place where there was no prohibition of their language, allowing them to willingly speak, celebrate and preserve their speech and culture, up to the present day. Currently the Okinawan-Japanese centers and communities in the State of São Paulo are a world reference to this language helping it to stay alive.[15]
Classification
Okinawan is sometimes grouped with Kunigami as the Okinawan languages; however, not all linguists accept this grouping, some claiming that Kunigami is a dialect of Okinawan.[12] Okinawan is also grouped with Amami (or the Amami languages) as the Northern Ryukyuan languages.
Dialect of the Japanese language
Since the creation of Okinawa Prefecture, Okinawan has been labeled a dialect of Japanese as part of a policy of assimilation. Later, Japanese linguists, such as Tōjō Misao, who studied the Ryukyuan languages argued that they are indeed dialects. This is due to the misconception that Japan is a homogeneous state (one people, one language, one nation), and classifying the Ryukyuan languages as such would discredit this belief.[16] The present-day official stance of the Japanese government remains that Okinawan is a dialect, and it is common within the Japanese population for it to be called 沖縄方言 (okinawa hōgen) or 沖縄弁 (okinawa-ben), which means "Okinawa dialect (of Japanese)". The policy of assimilation, coupled with increased interaction between Japan and Okinawa through media and economics, has led to the development of Okinawan Japanese, which is a dialect of Japanese influenced by the Okinawan and Kunigami languages. Japanese and Okinawan only share 60% of the same vocabulary, despite both being Japonic languages.[17]
Dialects of the Ryukyuan language
Okinawan linguist Seizen Nakasone states that the Ryukyuan languages are in fact groupings of similar dialects. As each community has its own distinct dialect, there is no "one language". Nakasone attributes this diversity to the isolation caused by immobility, citing the story of his mother who wanted to visit the town of Nago but never made the 25 km trip before she died of old age.[18]
Its own distinct language
Outside Japan, Okinawan is considered a separate language from Japanese. This was first proposed by Basil Hall Chamberlain, who compared the relationship between Okinawan and Japanese to that of the Romance languages. UNESCO has marked it as an endangered language.[19]
Sociolinguistics
UNESCO listed six Okinawan language varieties as endangered languages in 2009.[20] The endangerment of Okinawan is largely due to the shift to Standard Japanese. Throughout history, Okinawan languages have been treated as dialects of Standard Japanese. For instance, in the 20th century, many schools used "dialect tags" to punish the students who spoke in Okinawan.[21] Consequently, many of the remaining speakers today are choosing not to transmit their languages to younger generations due to the stigmatization of the languages in the past.[12]
There have been several revitalization efforts made to reverse this language shift. However, Okinawan is still poorly taught in formal institutions due to the lack of support from the Okinawan Education Council: education in Okinawa is conducted exclusively in Japanese, and children do not study Okinawan as their second language at school. As a result, at least two generations of Okinawans have grown up without any proficiency in their local languages both at home and school.[12]
The Okinawan language has five vowels, all of which may be long or short, though the short vowels /e/ and /o/ are quite rare,[22] as they occur only in a few native Okinawan words with heavy syllables with the pattern /Ceɴ/ or /Coɴ/, such as /meɴsoːɾeː/mensōrē "welcome" or /toɴɸaː/tonfā. The close back vowels /u/ and /uː/ are truly rounded, rather than the compressed vowels of standard Japanese.
Consonants
The Okinawan language counts some 20 distinctive segments shown in the chart below, with major allophones presented in parentheses.
The only consonant that can occur as a syllable coda is the archiphoneme|n|. Many analyses treat it as an additional phoneme /N/, the moraic nasal, though it never contrasts with /n/ or /m/.
The consonant system of the Okinawan language is fairly similar to that of standard Japanese, but it does present a few differences on the phonemic and allophonic level. Namely, Okinawan retains the labialized consonants /kʷ/ and /ɡʷ/ which were lost in Late Middle Japanese, possesses a glottal stop /ʔ/, features a voiceless bilabial fricative /ɸ/ distinct from the aspirate /h/, and has two distinctive affricates which arose from a number of different sound processes. Additionally, Okinawan lacks the major allophones [t͡s] and [d͡z] found in Japanese, having historically fronted the vowel /u/ to /i/ after the alveolars /tdsz/, consequently merging [t͡su]tsu into [t͡ɕi]chi, [su]su into [ɕi]shi, and both [d͡zu]dzu and [zu]zu into [d͡ʑi]ji. It also lacks /z/ as a distinctive phoneme, having merged it into /d͡ʑ/.
Bilabial and glottal fricatives
The bilabial fricative /ɸ/ has sometimes been transcribed as the cluster /hw/, since, like Japanese, /h/ allophonically labializes into [ɸ] before the high vowel /u/, and /ɸ/ does not occur before the rounded vowel /o/. This suggests that an overlap between /ɸ/ and /h/ exists, and so the contrast in front of other vowels can be denoted through labialization. However, this analysis fails to take account of the fact that Okinawan has not fully undergone the diachronic change */p/ → /ɸ/ → */h/ as in Japanese, and that the suggested clusterization and labialization into */hw/ is unmotivated.[23] Consequently, the existence of /ɸ/ must be regarded as independent of /h/, even though the two overlap. Barring a few words that resulted from the former change, the aspirate /h/ also arose from the odd lenition of /k/ and /s/, as well as words loaned from other dialects. Before the glide /j/ and the high vowel /i/, it is pronounced closer to [ç], as in Japanese.
Palatalization
The plosive consonants /t/ and /k/ historically palatalized and affricated into /t͡ɕ/ before and occasionally following the glide /j/ and the high vowel /i/: */kiri/ → /t͡ɕiɾi/chiri "fog", and */k(i)jora/ → /t͡ɕuɾa/chura- "beautiful". This change preceded vowel raising, so that instances where /i/ arose from */e/ did not trigger palatalization: */ke/ → /kiː/kī "hair". Their voiced counterparts /d/ and /ɡ/ underwent the same effect, becoming /d͡ʑ/ under such conditions: */unaɡi/ → /ʔɴnad͡ʑi/Qnnaji "eel", and */nokoɡiri/ → /nukud͡ʑiɾi/nukujiri "saw"; but */kaɡeɴ/ → /kaɡiɴ/kagin "seasoning".
Both /t/ and /d/ may or may not also allophonically affricate before the mid vowel /e/, though this pronunciation is increasingly rare. Similarly, the fricative consonant /s/ palatalizes into [ɕ] before the glide /j/ and the vowel /i/, including when /i/ historically derives from /e/: */sekai/ → [ɕikeː]shikē "world". It may also palatalize before the vowel /e/, especially so in the context of topicalization: [duɕi]dushi → [duɕeː]dusē or dushē "(topic) friend".
In general, sequences containing the palatal consonant /j/ are relatively rare and tend to exhibit depalatalization. For example, /mj/ tends to merge with /n/ ([mjaːku]myāku → [naːku]nāku "Miyako"); */rj/ has merged into /ɾ/ and /d/ (*/rjuː/ → /ɾuː/rū ~ /duː/dū "dragon"); and /sj/ has mostly become /s/ (/sjui/shui → /sui/sui "Shuri").
Flapping and fortition
The voiced plosive /d/ and the flap /ɾ/ tend to merge, with the first becoming a flap in word-medial position, and the second sometimes becoming a plosive in word-initial position. For example, /ɾuː/rū "dragon" may be strengthened into /duː/dū, and /hasidu/hashidu "door" conversely flaps into /hasiɾu/hashiru. The two sounds do, however, still remain distinct in a number of words and verbal constructions.
Glottal stop
Okinawan also features a distinctive glottal stop /ʔ/ that historically arose from a process of glottalization of word-initial vowels.[24] Hence, all vowels in Okinawan are predictably glottalized at the beginning of words (*/ame/ → /ʔami/ami "rain"), save for a few exceptions. High vowel loss or assimilation following this process created a contrast with glottalized approximants and nasal consonants.[24] Compare */uwa/ → /ʔwa/Qwa "pig" to /wa/wa "I", or */ine/ → /ʔɴni/Qnni "rice plant" to */mune/ → /ɴni/nni "chest".[25]
Moraic nasal
The moraic nasal/N/ has been posited in most descriptions of Okinawan phonology. Like Japanese, /N/ (transcribed using the small capital /ɴ/) occupies a full mora and its precise place of articulation will vary depending on the following consonant. Before other labial consonants, it will be pronounced closer to a syllabicbilabial nasal[m̩], as in /ʔɴma/[ʔm̩ma]Qnma "horse". Before velar and labiovelar consonants, it will be pronounced as a syllabic velar nasal[ŋ̍], as in /biɴɡata/[biŋ̍ɡata]bingata, a method of dying clothes. And before alveolar and alveolo-palatal consonants, it becomes a syllabic alveolar nasal/n̩/, as in /kaɴda/[kan̩da]kanda "vine". In some varieties, it instead becomes a syllabic uvular nasal[ɴ̩]. Elsewhere, its exact realization remains unspecified, and it may vary depending on the first sound of the next word or morpheme. In isolation and at the end of utterances, it is realized as a velar nasal [ŋ̍].
The Okinawan language was historically written using an admixture of kanji and hiragana. The hiragana syllabary is believed to have first been introduced from mainland Japan to the Ryukyu Kingdom some time during the reign of king Shunten in the early thirteenth century.[27][28] It is likely that Okinawans were already in contact with hanzi (Chinese characters) due to extensive trade between the Ryukyu Kingdom and China, Japan and Korea. However, hiragana gained more widespread acceptance throughout the Ryukyu Islands, and most documents and letters were exclusively transcribed using this script, in contrast to in Japan where writing solely in hiragana was considered "women's script". The Omoro Sōshi (おもろさうし), a sixteenth-century compilation of songs and poetry,[29] and a few preserved writs of appointments dating from the same century were written solely in Hiragana.[30]Kanji were gradually adopted due to the growing influence of mainland Japan and to the linguistic affinity between the Okinawan and Japanese languages.[31] However, it was mainly limited to affairs of high importance and to documents sent towards the mainland. The oldest inscription of Okinawan exemplifying its use along with Hiragana can be found on a stone stele at the Tamaudun mausoleum, dating back to 1501.[32][33]
After the invasion of Okinawa by the Shimazu clan of Satsuma in 1609, Okinawan ceased to be used in official affairs.[27] It was replaced by standard Japanese writing and a form of Classical Chinese writing known as kanbun.[27] Despite this change, Okinawan still continued to prosper in local literature up until the nineteenth century. Following the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government abolished the domain system and formally annexed the Ryukyu Islands to Japan as the Okinawa Prefecture in 1879.[34] To promote national unity, the government then introduced standard education and opened Japanese-language schools based on the Tokyo dialect.[34] Students were discouraged and chastised for speaking or even writing in the local "dialect", notably through the use of "dialect cards" (方言札). As a result, Okinawan gradually ceased to be written entirely until the American takeover in 1945.
Since then, Japanese and American scholars have variously transcribed the regional language using a number of ad hoc romanization schemes or the katakana syllabary to demarcate its foreign nature with standard Japanese. Proponents of Okinawan tend to be more traditionalist and continue to write the language using hiragana with kanji. In any case, no standard or consensus concerning spelling issues has ever been formalized, so discrepancies between modern literary works are common.
Syllabary
Technically, they are not syllables, but rather morae. Each mora in Okinawan will consist of one or two kana characters. If two, then a smaller version of kana follows the normal sized kana. In each cell of the table below, the top row is the kana (hiragana to the left, katakana to the right of the dot), the middle row in rōmaji (Hepburn romanization), and the bottom row in IPA.
Vowel
Consonant
a
i
u
e
o
ya
yi
yu
ye
yo
wa
wi
wu
we
wo
n
(none)
あ・ア a [a]
い・イ i [i]
う・ウ u [u]
え・エ e [e]
お・オ o [o]
や・ヤ ya [ja]
いぃ・イィ yi [ji]
ゆ・ユ yu [ju]
えぇ・エェ ye [je]
よ・ヨ yo [jo]
わ・ワ wa [wa]
ゐ・ヰ wi [wi]
をぅ・ヲゥ wu [wu]
ゑ・ヱ we [we]
を・ヲ wo [wo]
ん・ン n [ɴ] ([n̩], [ŋ̣], [ṃ])
Q (glottal stop)
あ・ア Qa [ʔa]
い・イ Qi [ʔi]
う・ウ Qu [ʔu]
え・エ Qe [ʔe]
お・オ Qo [ʔo]
っや・ッヤ Qya [ʔʲa]
っゆ・ッユ Qyu [ʔʲu]
っよ・ッヨ Qyo [ʔʲo]
っわ・ッワ Qwa [ʔʷa]
っゐ・ッヰ Qwi [ʔʷi]
っゑ・ッヱ Qwe [ʔʷe]
っを・ッヲ Qwo [ʔʷo]
っん・ッン Qn [ʔɴ] ([ʔn̩], [ʔṃ])
k
か・カ ka [ka]
き・キ ki [ki]
く・ク ku [ku]
け・ケ ke [ke]
こ・コ ko [ko]
きゃ・キャ kya [kʲa]
きゅ・キュ kyu [kʲu]
きょ・キョ kyo [kʲo]
くゎ・クヮ kwa [kʷa]
くぃ・クィ kwi [kʷi]
くぇ・クェ kwe [kʷe]
くぉ・クォ kwo [kʷo]
g
が・ガ ga [ɡa]
ぎ・ギ gi [ɡi]
ぐ・グ gu [ɡu]
げ・ゲ ge [ɡe]
ご・ゴ go [ɡo]
ぎゃ・ギャ gya [ɡʲa]
ぎゅ・ギュ gyu [ɡʲu]
ぎょ・ギョ gyo [ɡʲo]
ぐゎ・グヮ gwa [ɡʷa]
ぐぃ・グィ gwi [ɡʷi]
ぐぇ・グェ gwe [ɡʷe]
ぐぉ・グォ gwo [ɡʷo]
s
さ・サ sa [sa]
すぃ・スィ si [si]
す・ス su [su]
せ・セ se [se]
そ・ソ so [so]
sh
しゃ・シャ sha [ɕa]
し・シ shi [ɕi]
しゅ・シュ shu [ɕu]
しぇ・シェ she [ɕe]
しょ・ショ sho [ɕo]
z
ざ・ザ za [za]
ずぃ・ズィ zi [zi]
ず・ズ zu [zu]
ぜ・ゼ ze [ze]
ぞ・ゾ zo [zo]
j
じゃ・ジャ (ぢゃ・ヂャ) ja [dʑa]
じ・ジ (ぢ・ヂ) ji [dʑi]
じゅ・ヂュ (ぢゅ・ヂュ) ju [dʑu]
じぇ・ジェ (ぢぇ・ヂェ) je [dʑe]
じょ・ジョ (ぢょ・ヂョ) jo [dʑo]
t
た・タ ta [ta]
てぃ・ティ ti [ti]
とぅ・トゥ tu [tu]
て・テ te [te]
と・ト to [to]
d
だ・ダ da [da]
でぃ・ディ di [di]
どぅ・ドゥ du [du]
で・デ de [de]
ど・ド do [do]
ts
つぁ・ツァ tsa [t͡sa]
つぃ・ツィ tsi [t͡si]
つ・ツ tsu [t͡su]
つぇ・ツェ tse [t͡se]
つぉ・ツォ tso [t͡so]
ch
ちゃ・チャ cha [t͡ɕa]
ち・チ chi [t͡ɕi]
ちゅ・チュ chu [t͡ɕu]
ちぇ・チェ che [t͡ɕe]
ちょ・チョ cho [t͡ɕo]
ya
yu
yo
n
な・ナ na [na]
に・ニ ni [ni]
ぬ・ヌ nu [nu]
ね・ネ ne [ne]
の・ノ no [no]
にゃ・ニャ nya [ɲa]
にゅ・ニュ nyu [ɲu]
にょ・ニョ nyo [ɲo]
long vowel
double consonant
〜(あ、い、う、え、お)・ー ~(a, i, u, e, o) ~[Vː]
っ・ッ (Any consonant) [Cː]
h
は・ハ ha [ha]
ひ・ヒ hi [çi]
へ・ヘ he [he]
ほ・ホ ho [ho]
ひゃ・ヒャ hya [ça]
ひゅ・ヒュ hyu [çu]
ひょ・ヒョ hyo [ço]
f
ふぁ・ファ fa [ɸa]
ふぃ・フィ fi [ɸi]
ふ・フ fu/hu [ɸu]
ふぇ・フェ fe [ɸe]
ふぉ・フォ fo [ɸo]
b
ば・バ ba [ba]
び・ビ bi [bi]
ぶ・ブ bu [bu]
べ・ベ be [be]
ぼ・ボ bo [bo]
p
ぱ・パ pa [pa]
ぴ・ピ pi [pi]
ぷ・プ pu [pu]
ぺ・ペ pe [pe]
ぽ・ポ po [po]
m
ま・マ ma [ma]
み・ミ mi [mi]
む・ム mu [mu]
め・メ me [me]
も・モ mo [mo]
みゃ・ミャ mya [mʲa]
みゅ・ミュ myu [mʲu]
みょ・ミョ myo [mʲo]
r
ら・ラ ra [ɾa]
り・リ ri [ɾi]
る・ル ru [ɾu]
れ・レ re [ɾe]
ろ・ロ ro [ɾo]
りゃ・リャ rya [ɾʲa]
りゅ・リュ ryu [ɾʲu]
りょ・リョ ryo [ɾʲo]
Grammar
Okinawan follows a subject–object–verb word order and makes large use of particles as in Japanese. Okinawan dialects retain a number of grammatical features of classical Japanese, such as a distinction between the terminal form (終止形) and the attributive form (連体形), the genitive function of がga (lost in the Shuri dialect), the nominative function of ぬnu (Japanese: のno), as well as honorific/plain distribution of ga and nu in nominative use.
Okinawan conjugation
書くkaku to write
Classical
Shuri
Irrealis
未然形
書か
kaka-
kaka-
Continuative
連用形
書き
kaki-
kachi-
Terminal
終止形
書く
kaku
kachun
Attributive
連体形
書く
kaku
kachuru
Realis
已然形
書け
kake-
kaki-
Imperative
命令形
書け
kake
kaki
One etymology given for the -un and -uru endings is the continuative form suffixed with uri (Classical Japanese: 居りwori, to be; to exist): -un developed from the terminal form uri; -uru developed from the attributive form uru, i.e.:
kachuru derives from kachi-uru;
kachun derives from kachi-uri; and
yumun (Japanese: 読むyomu, to read) derives from yumi + uri.
A similar etymology is given for the terminal -san and attributive -saru endings for adjectives: the stem suffixed with さsa (nominalises adjectives, i.e. high → height, hot → heat), suffixed with ari (Classical Japanese: 有りari, to exist; to have), i.e.:
takasan (Japanese: 高いtakai, high; tall) derives from taka-sa-ari;
achisan (Japanese: 暑いatsui, hot; warm) derives from atsu-sa-ari; and
yutasaru (good; pleasant) derives from yuta-sa-aru.
Nouns are classified as independent, non-conjugating part of speech that can become a subject of a sentence
Pronouns (代名詞)
Pronouns are classified the same as nouns, except that pronouns are more broad.
Okinawan pronouns
Singular
Plural
Personal
Demonstrative
Personal
Demonstrative
Thing
Place
Direction
Thing
Place
Direction
1st person
我ん (wan)
わー (wā)
わみ (wami)
我達 (wattā)
いがろー (igarō)
2nd person
やー (yā)
やーみ (yāmi)
なー (nā)
なーみ (nāmi)
御所 (unju)
いったー (ittā)
なったー (nattā)
うんじゅなーたー (unjunātā)
3rd person
Proximal
くり (kuri)
くり (kuri)
くま (kuma)
くま (kuma)
くがた (kugata)
くったー (kuttā)
くったー (kuttā)
くま (kuma)
くま (kuma)
くがた (kugata)
Medial
うり (uri)
うり (uri)
うま (uma)
うま (uma)
うがた (ugata)
うったー (uttā)
うったー (uttā)
うま (uma)
うま (uma)
うがた (ugata)
Distal
あり (ari)
あり (ari)
あま (ama)
あま (ama)
あがた (agata)
あったー (attā)
あったー (attā)
あま (ama)
あま (ama)
あがた (agata)
Indefinite
たー (tā)
た (ta)
じる (jiru)
まー (mā)
まー (mā)
まーかた (mākata)
たったー (tattā)
じる (jiru)
まー (mā)
まー (mā)
まーかた (mākata)
Adverbs (副詞)
Adverbs are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech that cannot become a subject of a sentence and modifies a declinable word (用言; verbs, adverbs, adjectives) that comes after the adverb. There are two main categories to adverbs and several subcategories within each category, as shown in the table below.
Okinawan adverbs
Adverbs that shows state or condition
Okinawan
Japanese
English
Example
Time
ひっちー (hitchī)
しょっちゅう (shotchū)
いつも (itsumo)
始終 (shijū)
Always
あぬ
Anu
夫婦
fitundā
ひっちー、
hitchī,
たっくゎいむっくゎい
takkwaimukkwai
びけーそーん。
bikēsōn.
あぬ 夫婦 ひっちー、 たっくゎいむっくゎい びけーそーん。
Anu fitundā hitchī, takkwaimukkwai bikēsōn.
あの
Ano
夫婦
fūfu
は
wa
いつも、
itsumo,
寄り添って
yorisotte
ばかり
bakari
いる。
iru.
あの 夫婦 は いつも、 寄り添って ばかり いる。
Ano fūfu wa itsumo, yorisotte bakari iru.
That couple is always sticking close.
まーるけーてぃ (mārukēti)
たまに (tamani)
Occasionally
子ー
Kwā
まーるけーてぃ、
mārukēti,
親
uya
ぬ
nu
加勢しーが
kashīshīga
行ちゅん。
ichun.
子ー まーるけーてぃ、 親 ぬ 加勢しーが 行ちゅん。
Kwā mārukēti, uya nu kashīshīga ichun.
子供
Kodomo
は
wa
たまに、
tamani,
親
oya
の
no
手伝い
tetsudai
に
ni
行く。
iku.
子供 は たまに、 親 の 手伝い に 行く。
Kodomo wa tamani, oya no tetsudai ni iku.
The kid occasionally goes to help his/her parent.
ちゃーき (chāki)
直ぐ (sugu)
Already
くぬ
Kunu
車ー
kurumā
ちゃーき、
chāki,
けーやんでぃとーんたん。
kēyanditōntan.
くぬ 車ー ちゃーき、 けーやんでぃとーんたん。
Kunu kurumā chāki, kēyanditōntan.
この
Kono
車
kuruma
は
wa
直ぐ、
sugu,
壊れて
kowarete
しまっていた。
shimatteita.
この 車 は 直ぐ、 壊れて しまっていた。
Kono kuruma wa sugu, kowarete shimatteita.
This car broke already.
やがてぃ (yagati)
やがて
Shortly
やがてぃ、
Yagati,
太陽
tida
ぬ
nu
落てぃゆしが、
utiyushiga,
御所ー
unjuō
来ーん。
kūn.
やがてぃ、 太陽 ぬ 落てぃゆしが、 御所ー 来ーん。
Yagati, tida nu utiyushiga, unjuō kūn.
やがて、
Yagate,
太陽
taiyō
が
ga
落ちるが、
ochiruga,
あなた
anata
は
wa
こない。
konai.
やがて、 太陽 が 落ちるが、 あなた は こない。
Yagate, taiyō ga ochiruga, anata wa konai.
The sun will disappear shortly, but you are not here.
未だ (nāda)
まだ (mada)
Yet
彼女が
Ariga
胆
chimō
未だ、
nāda,
直らん。
nōran.
彼女が 胆 未だ、 直らん。
Ariga chimō nāda, nōran.
彼女
Kanojo
の
no
機嫌
kigen
は
wa
まだ、
mada,
直らない。
naoranai.
彼女 の 機嫌 は まだ、 直らない。
Kanojo no kigen wa mada, naoranai.
Her mood has yet to become better.
ちゃー (chā)
いつも (itsumo)
Always
あま
Ama
ぬ
nu
犬
inō
ちゃー、
chā,
あびとーん。
abitōn.
あま ぬ 犬 ちゃー、 あびとーん。
Ama nu inō chā, abitōn.
あそこ
Asoko
の
no
犬
inu
は
wa
いつも、
itsumo,
吠えている。
hoeteiru.
あそこ の 犬 は いつも、 吠えている。
Asoko no inu wa itsumo, hoeteiru.
The dog over there is always barking.
ちゅてーや (chutēya)
少しは (sukoshiwa)
ちょっとは (chottowa)
A little
ちゅてーや、
Chutēya,
待っちょーきよー。
matchōkiyō.
ちゅてーや、 待っちょーきよー。
Chutēya, matchōkiyō.
少しは、
Sukoshiwa,
待っておいてよ。
matteoiteyo.
少しは、 待っておいてよ。
Sukoshiwa, matteoiteyo.
Wait a little.
あっとぅむす (attumusu)
急に (kyūni)
Suddenly
どぅし
Dushi
ぬ
nu
あっとぅむす、
attumusu,
はっ来ょーたんどー。
hachōtandō.
どぅし ぬ あっとぅむす、 はっ来ょーたんどー。
Dushi nu attumusu, hachōtandō.
友達
Tomodachi
が
ga
急に、
kyūni,
来ていたよ。
kiteitayo.
友達 が 急に、 来ていたよ。
Tomodachi ga kyūni, kiteitayo.
My friend suddenly came.
まるひーじーや (maruhījīya)
普段は (fudanwa)
Normally
隣
Tunai
ぬ
nu
三郎主
Sandāsū
や
ya
まるひーじーや
maruhījīya
寝んてぃどぅ居ゆる。
nintidūyuru.
隣 ぬ 三郎主 や まるひーじーや 寝んてぃどぅ居ゆる。
Tunai nu Sandāsū ya maruhījīya nintidūyuru.
隣
Tonari
の
no
三郎爺は
Sandā-jī
普段は
fudanwa
寝ている。
neteiru.
隣 の 三郎爺は 普段は 寝ている。
Tonari no Sandā-jī fudanwa neteiru.
Sanda is normally sleeping.
いっとぅちゃー (ittuchā)
しばらくは (shibarakuwa)
A little while
いっとぅちゃー、
Ittuchā,
門口
jōguchi
んじ
nji
待っちょーけー。
matchōkē.
いっとぅちゃー、 門口 んじ 待っちょーけー。
Ittuchā, jōguchi nji matchōkē.
しばらくは、
Shibarakuwa,
門
mon
で
de
待っておけ。
matteoke.
しばらくは、 門 で 待っておけ。
Shibarakuwa, mon de matteoke.
Wait at the gate a little while.
Quantity
いふぃ (ifi)
少し (sukoshi)
A little
三郎、
Sandā,
いふぇー、
ifē,
汝
yā
たまし
tamashi
から
kara
分きてぃ取らせー。
wakititurasē.
三郎、 いふぇー、 汝 たまし から 分きてぃ取らせー。
Sandā, ifē, yā tamashi kara wakititurasē.
三郎、
Sandā,
少し
sukoshi
は
wa
君
kimi
の
no
分
bun
から
kara
分けてくれ。
waketekure.
三郎、 少し は 君 の 分 から 分けてくれ。
Sandā, sukoshi wa kimi no bun kara waketekure.
Sanda, please share a little bit of yours.
ちゃっさきー (chassakī)
沢山 (takusan)
Many, a lot of
御主前
Usumē
や
ya
山
yama
から
kara
ちゃっさきー、
chassakī,
薪、
tamun,
持ち来ぇーん。
muchichēn.
御主前 や 山 から ちゃっさきー、 薪、 持ち来ぇーん。
Usumē ya yama kara chassakī, tamun, muchichēn.
お爺さん
Ojī-san
は
wa
山
yama
から
kara
沢山、
takusan,
薪
maki
を
wo
持ってきてある。
mottekitearu.
お爺さん は 山 から 沢山、 薪 を 持ってきてある。
Ojī-san wa yama kara takusan, maki wo mottekitearu.
The old man brought a lot of firewood.
はてぃるか (hatiruka)
随分 (zuibun)
A lot
昨日
Chinū
や
ya
はてぃるか、
hatiruka,
歩っちゃん。
atchan.
昨日 や はてぃるか、 歩っちゃん。
Chinū ya hatiruka, atchan.
昨日
Kinō
は
wa
随分、
zuibun,
歩いた。
aruita.
昨日 は 随分、 歩いた。
Kinō wa zuibun, aruita.
I walked a lot yesterday.
ぐゎさない (gwasanai)
わんさか (wansaka)
Abundant
我達
Wattā
畑
haru
んかい
nkai
や
ya
黍
ūjē
ぐゎさない、
gwasanai,
まんどーんどー。
mandōndō.
我達 畑 んかい や 黍 ぐゎさない、 まんどーんどー。
Wattā haru nkai ya ūjē gwasanai, mandōndō.
私達
Watashitachi
の
no
畑
hatake
に
ni
は
wa
砂糖黍
satōkibi
は
wa
わんさか
wansaka
あるよ。
aruyo.
私達 の 畑 に は 砂糖黍 は わんさか あるよ。
Watashitachi no hatake ni wa satōkibi wa wansaka aruyo.
No way, no idea, unlikely, it is impossible that...
まさか、
Masaka,
ちゅ
chu
村
shima
んかい
nkai
従弟
ichiku
ぬ
nu
しまゆ
shimayu
んでー、
ndē,
思んたん。
umāntan.
まさか、 ちゅ 村 んかい 従弟 ぬ しまゆ んでー、 思んたん。
Masaka, chu shima nkai ichiku nu shimayu ndē, umāntan.
まさか、
Masaka,
同じ
onaji
村
mura
に
ni
従弟
itoko
が
ga
住んでいる
sundeiru
とは
towa
思わなかった。
omowanakatta.
まさか、 同じ 村 に 従弟 が 住んでいる とは 思わなかった。
Masaka, onaji mura ni itoko ga sundeiru towa omowanakatta.
I had no idea that my cousin lived in the same village.
むしや (mushiya)
もしや (moshiya)
By chance
むしや、うんじょー 我とぅちるめーや あらに。
もしや、あなたは私と同じ歳ではないだろうか。
Are you as old as I am by any chance?
むしか (mushika)
もしや (moshiya)
Perhaps
むしか、今頃、我事、心配しえ居らんさに。
もしや、今頃、私のことを心配していないだろうな。
Perhaps, they might be worried about me now.
まさか (masaka)
まさか (masaka)
No way, no idea, unlikely, it is impossible that...
まさか、今日や う祭いんでえ 思あんたん。
Masaka chūya umachī ndē umāntan
まさか、今日はウマチーとは思わなかった。
I had no idea that today was the festival day.
あたまに (atamani)
ほんとに (hontoni)
Really (intensifier)
あたまに、今日や 暑さっさあやあ。
ほんとに、今日は暑いねえ。
It's really hot today.
Wish
どうでぃん (doudin)
どうか (dōka)
Please
どうでぃん、我が 御願え、聞ちたぼうり。
どうか、私のお願いを聞いてください。
Please could you do me a favor?
たんでぃ (tandi)
どうぞ (dōzo)
Please
たんでぃ、我にんかい 水、飲まち呉みそおれえ。
どうぞ、私に水を飲ましてください。
Please let me drink some water.
必じ (kannaji)
必ず (kanarazu)
Always, have to
二男ぬうや 必じ、サッカー部んかい 入ゆんでぃ。
二男は必ず、サッカー部に入るんだと。
The second oldest son has to join the soccer team.
如何しん (chāshin)
どうしても (dōshitemo)
Have to, at any cost
あぬ映画、如何しん、見じいぶしゃん。
あの映画をどうしても、見たい。
I want to watch the movie at any cost.
Doubt
如何し (chāshi)
どうやって (dōyatte)
How
くぬパソコンや 如何し、動かすが。
このパソコンはどうやって、動かすのか。
How do you use this computer?
みったい (mittai)
一体 (ittai)
Really
みったい、うんじゅおー、我どぅ 抑えとおるい。
一体、あなたは私を馬鹿にしているのか。
Really, are you making fun of me?
あんすか (ansuka)
そんなに (sonnani)
So much, really
後ぬあばあや あんすか、歌上手やんなあ。
後隣りのあ姉さんはそんなに、歌が上手なのか。
Is the lady next door really good at singing?
何んち (nūnchi)
何故 (naze)
Why
何んち、父や 行かんが。
何故、父は行かないか。
Why doesn't father want to go?
Denial or negation
あちらん (achiran)
一向に (ikkōni)
Completely, at all
ちゃっさ、あさがちしん、あちらん前あがちんならん。
いくら、焦っても、一向に、前に進むことも出来ない。
No matter how much we hurry, we cannot make any progress at all.
じょーい (jōi)
絶対 (zettai)
Definitely
うぬ石ー童のーじょーい、持っちいゆさん。
この石は子供は絶対、持てない。
This rock, the child definitely cannot hold.
ちゃっさん (chassan)
度を超して (do o koshite)
Go too far
ちゃっさん、遊ばんしえーまし。
度を超して、遊ばない方が良い。
You should not go too far when you're playing.
いふぃん (ifin)
少しも (sukoshimo)
At all
どぅく、忙さぬ、いふぃん、ゆくららん。
あまりにも、忙しくて、少しも、休めない。
I'm so busy I cannot rest at all.
如何ん (chān)
どうすることも (dōsurukotomo)
Cannot do anything
じかじん 聞かんくとぅ、如何ん、ならん。
言うことも聞かないから、どうすることも出来ない。
They don't listen, so I cannot do anything.
Decision
じゅんに (junni)
本当に (hontōni)
Really, truly
くぬ三線や じゅんに、秀物やっさー。
この三味線は本当に、立派なものだな。
This is a truly amazing Sanshin.
必じ (kannaji)
必ず (kanarazu)
Definitely
我んねー必じ、御所ぬ所んかい 行ちゃん。
私は必ず、あなたの所に行く。
I will definitely go to your place.
うん如おりー (ungutuorī)
そのような事 (sonoyōnakoto)
Such a thing
うん如ーりーや 当い前なかい、誰がん なゆん。
そのような事は、当然、誰にでもできる。
Anybody can do such a thing.
Others
いちゃんだん (ichandan)
むやみに (muyamini)
Recklessly
昔ん人ーいちゃんだん、戦、そーたん。
昔の人はむやみに戦争をしていた。
People used to recklessly start wars in the past.
うったてぃ (uttati)
わざと (wazato)
On purpose
あんぐゎーなかい 見だりーんねーし、二歳やうったてぃ、どぅ返りゆたん。
女の子に見られようと、青年はわざと、転びよった。
The boy fell on purpose so that the girl would notice him.
なー (nā)
もう (mō)
Already
客ーなー、去いたん。
お客さんはもう、行ってしまった。
The guests are already gone.
Prenominal adjectives (連体詞)
Prenominal adjectives (連体詞)
Prenominal adjectives are classified the same as adverbs, except instead of modifying a declinable word, it modifies a substantive (体言; nouns and pronouns).
Okinawan
Japanese
English
いぃー (yī)
良い (ii)
good
Conjunctions (接続詞)
Conjunctions (接続詞)
Conjunctions are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech that connects words coming after to words coming before.
Okinawan
Japanese
English
あんさびーくとぅ (ansabīkutu)
そういうわけですから (sō iu wake desukara)
"For that reason"
あんし (anshi)
それで (sorede)
それから (sorekara)
"And then"
やくとぅ (yakutu)
だから (dakara)
"So"
やしが (yashiga)
しかし (shikashi)
そうではあるが (sōde wa aruga)
"But"
Interjections and exclamations (感動詞)
Interjections and exclamations (感動詞)
Interjections are classified as an independent, non-conjugating part of speech, where it does not modify or connect anything, and other words may not come after it.
Okinawan
Japanese
English
Notes
あい (ai)
おや (oya)
Oh / wow
驚きの気持ちを表す
Expression of surprise
あきさみよー (akisamiyō)
あらまあ (aramā)
Oh dear
Expression of dismay, concern, or worry
あきとーなー (akitōnā)
おやまあ (oyamā)
Oh dear
失敗した時や驚いた時などに発する
Expression of dismay, concern, or worry
うー (ū)
はい (hai)
Yes
Honorific "yes"
あいびらん (aibiran)
をぅーをぅー (wūwū)
いいえ (īe)
No
目上の人に対して用いる
Honorific "no"
だー (dā)
おい (oi)
どれ (dore)
ほら (hora)
Hey
とー (tō)
ほら (hora)
よし (yoshi)
All right
Expression of pleasure, joy, or permission
とーとー (tōtō)
よしよし (yoshiyoshi)
ほらほら (horahora)
はっさみよー (hassamiyō)
おやまあ (oyamā)
Oh dear
呆れ返った時などに発する語
んちゃ (ncha)
なるほど (naruhodo)
やっぱり (yappari)
予定通りだ (yoteidōrida)
Sure enough, As I expected
Verbs (動詞)
Verbs are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows movements. The conclusive form ends in ん (n).
Adjectives (形容詞)
Adjectives are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows property or state. The conclusive form ends in さん (san).
(存在動詞)
存在動詞 are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows existence or decision of a certain thing. やん (yan) attaches to a substantive.
Adjectival verbs (形容動詞)
Adjectival verbs are classified as an independent, conjugating part of speech that shows the state of existence of events. やん (yan) attaches to words that shows state.
Auxiliary verbs (助動詞)
Auxiliary verbs (助動詞)
Auxiliary verbs are classified as a dependent, conjugating part of speech that makes up the meanings of conjugated words. The conclusive form ends in ん (n).
Okinawan
Japanese
English
Example
あぎーん (agīn)
あぎゆん (agiyun)
しつつある (shitsutsuaru)
ぎさん (gisan)
そうだ (sōda)
ぐとーん (gutōn)
のようだ (noyōda)
しみゆん (shimiyun)
すん (sun)
させる (saseru)
ぶさん (busan)
したい (shitai)
want to
みしぇーびーん (mishēbīn)
なさいます (nasaimasu)
みしぇーん (mishēn)
なさる (nasaru)
ゆーすん (yūsun)
ことができる (kotogadekiru)
be able to
りゆん (riyun)
りーん (rīn)
れる (reru)
られる (rareru)
Particles (助詞)
Particles (助詞)
Case markers (格助詞)
Attaches to a substantive and marks the relationship between other words.
Okinawan
Japanese
Notes/English
Example
ぬ (nu)
が (ga)
が (ga)
Nominative case. Normally ぬ (nu), but が (ga) is used for pronouns and names.
犬ぬあびゆん。我があびゆん。
犬が吠える。私が喋る。
ぬ (nu)
の (no)
Genitive case; possessor.
豚ぬ肉、食みーねー、体んかいましやん。
豚の肉を食べると体に良い。
Ø (Archaic: ゆ (yu))
を (wo)
Accusative case. Modern Okinawan does not use a direct object particle, like casual Japanese speech. "yu" exists mainly in old literary composition.
っし (sshi)
で (de)
Instrumental case; the means by which something is achieved.
バスっし行 (い)ちゃびら。
バスで行こう。
Let's go by bus.
さーに (sāni)
沖縄口 (うちなーぐち)さーに手紙 (てぃがみ)書 (か)ちゃん。
沖縄語で手紙を書いた。
I wrote the letter in Okinawan.
なかい (nakai)・んかい (nkai)
へ (e)・に (ni)
Dative case; indirect object, benefactor, goal of motion. 手段・方法
沖縄 (うちなー)んかいめんそーれー!
沖縄へようこそ!
Welcome to Okinawa!
をぅとーてぃ (wutōti)・をぅてぃ (wuti)
Locative case; marks the location where an action takes place, usually pertaining to an animate subject. Derives from the participle form of the verb をぅん wun "to be, to exist".
This train goes as far as Shuri. I'll wait until you come home.
くれー (kurē)
ぐらい (gurai)
"around, about, approximately"
十分 (じっぷん)くれーかかゆん。
十分ぐらいかかる。
It will take about 10 minutes.
ふどぅ (fudu)
ほど (hodo)
あたい (atai)
ぐらい (gurai)等
as much as; upper limit.
うぬ建物 (たてぃむの)ー思 (うむ)ゆるあたい高 (たか)こーねーやびらん。
あの建物は思うぐらい高くないよ。
That building is not as tall as you imagine it to be.
んちょーん (nchōn)
さえ (sae)
うっさ (ussa)
だけ (dake)等
うっぴ (uppi)
だけ (dake)等
寝 (に)んじ欲 (ぶ)しゃるうっぴ寝 (に)んでぃん済 (す)まびいん。
寝たいだけ寝ていいよ。
You can sleep as much as you want.
うひ (uhi)
だけ (dake)等
さく (saku)
ほど (hodo)、だけ (dake)
Binding particles (係助詞)
Okinawan
Japanese
Notes/English
Example
や (ya)
は (wa)
Topic particle for long vowels, proper nouns, or names.
For other nouns, the particle fuses with short vowels. a → ā, i → ē, u → ō, e → ē, o → ō, n → nō.
Pronoun 我ん (wan?) (I) becomes topicalized as 我んねー (wannē?) instead of 我んのー (wannō?) or 我んや (wan'ya?), although the latter does appear in some musical or literary works.
Okinawan is a marked nominative language (with the accusative being unmarked) that also shows minor active–stative variation in intransitive verbs relating to existence or emergence. In existence or emergence verbs, the subject may be optionally unmarked (except for pronouns and proper names, which must be marked with ga), and marked human subjects cannot use ga anymore, but rather always with the often-inanimate marker nu.[35]
Example
Sample text in Standard Okinawan (Shuri-Naha dialect)
Ninjinō tā n 'nmariyagīnā jiyu yai, mata, dū tēshichi ni umuyuru chimu tu dū mamurandiru chimō, tā yatin yunugutu sajakatōru mun yan. Ninjinō mūtu kara īka ni nu sunawatōkutu, tagē ni chōdēyandiru kangēsā ni kutu ni atarandarē naran.
(UDHR Article 1)
See also
Okinawan Japanese, the language most commonly spoken in Okinawa today
^45-CAC-ai comprises most of Central Okinawa, including Shuri (Naha), Ginowan and Nishihara; 45-CAC-aj comprises the southern tip of Okinawa Island, including Itoman, Mabuni and Takamine; 45-CAC-ak encompasses the region west of Okinawa Island, including the Kerama Islands, Kumejima and Aguni
^Shimoji, Michinori (2018). "Okinawan". In Hasegawa, Yoko (ed.). The Cambridge Handbook of Japanese Linguistics. Cambridge Handbooks of Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 104–107. doi:10.1017/9781316884461. ISBN9781316884461.
References
Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (2008). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevier. ISBN978-0-08-087774-7.
Kaplan, Robert B. (2008). Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters. Multilingual Matters. ISBN978-1-84769-095-1.
Kerr, George H. (2000). Okinawa, the history of an island people. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN978-0-8048-2087-5.