The oldest known attestation of the Arabic language dubbed as pre-Historic Arabic language is a bi-lingual inscription written in Old Arabic which was written in the undifferentiated North Arabian script (known as Thamudic B) and Canaanite which remains undeciphered, discovered in Bayir, Jordan.[2]
A characteristic of Nabataean Arabic and Old Hijazi (from which Classical Arabic much later developed) is the definite articleal-. The first unambiguous literary attestation of this feature occurs in the 5th century BCE, in the epithet of a goddess which Herodotus (Histories I: 131, III: 8) quotes in its preclassical Arabic form as Alilat (Ἀλιλάτ, i. e.,ʼal-ʼilāt), which means "the goddess".[6] An early piece of inscriptional evidence for this form of the article is provided by a 1st-century BCE inscription in Qaryat al-Faw (formerly Qaryat Dhat Kahil, near Sulayyil, Saudi Arabia).[7][8][9]
The earliest datable Safaitic inscriptions go back to the 3rd century BCE, but the vast majority of texts are undatable and so may stretch back much further in time.[1]
4th century BCE
Northern Negev
Aramaic ostraca dated 362–301 BC bear witness to the presence of people of Edomite origin in the southern Shephelah and the Beersheva Valley before the Hellenistic period. They contain personal names that can be defined as Arabic on the basis of their linguistic features:[10]
whb, qws-whb (opposed to Northwest Semitic yhb), ytʿ as opposed to Aramaic ysʿ and Hebrew yšʿ
quṭaylu diminutives: šʿydw, ʿbydw, nhyrw, zbydw
personal names ending in -w (wawation): ʿzyzw, ʿbdw, nmrw, mlkw, ḥlfw, zydw
personal names ending in feminine -t (as opposed to Aramaic and Hebrew -h): yʿft, ḥlft
personal names ending in -n [-aːn]: 'drn, mṭrn, ḥlfn, zydn
2nd century BCE – 1st century CE
Wadi Rum
Hismaic inscriptions, contemporaneous with the Nabatean Kingdom attest a variety of Old Arabic which may have merged [ð] with [d]. Furthermore, there are 52 Hismaic inscriptions which attest the formula ḏkrt lt[ðakarat allaːtu][citation needed] "May Allāt be mindful of", foreshadowing similar formulae which are attested in Christian contexts from northern Syria to northern Arabia during the 6th and possibly 7th centuries CE. One such inscription, found near Wadi Rum, is given below:
l ʼbs1lm bn qymy d ʼl gs2m w dkrt-n lt w dkrt {ltws2yʽ-n} kll-hm
*Li- ʼabs¹alām bin qayyemyV dū/ī ʼāl gas²m uwa dakaratn āllāt uwa dakarat {allāt uwa s²yaʽnā} kulilhum
By Absalām son of Qayyimyā of the lineage of Gašmū. And may (A)llāt be mindful of us and may (A)llāt be mindful of all our companions.
2nd century CE
Temple of Obodas
Following the Bar Kokhba Revolt of 135 CE, literary sources from figures such as Cassius Dio , and Eusebius , inform that Judea was repopulated by pagans.[citation needed] The shift in toponymy towards an Arabic pronunciation, which is only apparent in Greek transcription, would suggest that many of these pagans were drawn from Provincia Arabia. This seems to be recognized by the author of the Madaba map in his entry on Beersheba: ‘Bērsabee which is now Bērossaba’. Compound toponyms with an o-vowel in between their two components (cf. Abdomankō) are reminiscent of an Arabic pronunciation, and probably have their origin in Arabic calques of earlier Canaanite place names.[12][failed verification]
The En Avdat inscription dates to no later than 150 CE, and contains a prayer to the deified Nabataean king Obodas I:[13]
Prayer to Obodas
Transliteration + Transcription + Translation
(1)
pypʿl
pajepʕal
lʾ
laː
pdʾ
pedaːʔ
w
wa
lʾ
laː
ʾṯrʾ
ʔaθara
pypʿl lʾ pdʾ w lʾ ʾṯrʾ
pajepʕal laː pedaːʔ wa laː ʔaθara
And he acts neither for benefit nor favour
(2)
pkn
pakaːn
hnʾ
honaː
ybʿnʾ
jabɣenaː
ʾlmwtw
ʔalmawto
lʾ
laː
pkn hnʾ ybʿnʾ ʾlmwtw lʾ
pakaːn honaː jabɣenaː ʔalmawto laː
and if death claims us let me not
(3)
ʾbʿh
ʔabɣæːh
pkn
pakaːn
hnʾ
honaː
ʾrd
ʔaraːd
grḥw
gorħo
lʾ
laː
yrdnʾ
jorednaː
ʾbʿh pkn hnʾ ʾrd grḥw lʾ yrdnʾ
ʔabɣæːh pakaːn honaː ʔaraːd gorħo laː jorednaː
be claimed. And if an affliction occurs let it not afflict us
The earliest 6th century Arabic inscription is from Zabad (512 CE), a town near Aleppo, Syria. The Arabic inscription consists of a list of names carved on the lowest part of the lintel of a martyrion dedicated to St Sergius, the upper parts of which are occupied by inscriptions in Greek and Syriac.[12]
The Qur'an, as standardized by Uthman[14] (r. 644 – 656), is the first Arabic codex still extant, and the first non-inscriptional attestation of the Old Hijazi dialect. The Birmingham Quran manuscript was radiocarbon dated to between 568 and 645 CE, and contains parts of chapters 18, 19, and 20.
PERF 558 (643 CE) is the oldest Islamic Arabic text, the first Islamic papyrus, and attests the continuation of wawation into the Islamic period.
The Zuhayr inscription (644 CE) is the oldest Islamic rock inscription.[15] It references the death of Umar, and is notable for its fully fledged system of dotting.
A Christian Arabic inscription, known as the Yazid inscription, possibly mentions Yazid I and is notable for its continuation of 6th century Christian Arabic formulae as well as maintaining pre-Islamic letter shapes and wawation.[16]
Phonology
Consonants
Consonant phonemes of Old Arabic (based on Safaitic and Greek transcriptions)[4]
In contrast with Old Higazi and Classical Arabic, Nabataean Arabic may have undergone the shift /e/ < */i/ and /o/ < */u/, as evidenced by the numerous Greek transcriptions of Arabic from the area. This may have occurred in Safaitic as well, making it a possible Northern Old Arabic isogloss.
In contrast to Classical Arabic, Old Higazi had the phonemes /eː/ and /oː/, which arose from the contraction of Old Arabic /ajV/ and /awV/, in which V was an short unstressed vowel, respectively. The reduction of /eː/ in closed syllables resulted in either short /a/ or /e/.[17]
The ʿEn ʿAvdat inscription in the Nabataean script dating to no later than 150 CE shows that final [n] had been deleted in undetermined triptotes, and that the final short vowels of the determined state were intact. The Old Arabic of the Nabataean inscriptions exhibits almost exclusively the form ʾl- of the definite article. Unlike Classical Arabic, this ʾl almost never exhibits the assimilation of the coda to the coronals.
"And he acts neither for benefit nor favour and if death claims us let me not be claimed. And if an affliction occurs let it not afflict us".[12]
Safaitic
The A1 inscription dated to the 3rd or 4th century in a Greek alphabet in a dialect showing affinities to that of the Safaitic inscriptions shows that short final high vowels had been lost, obliterating the distinction between nominative and genitive case in the singular, leaving the accusative the only marked case.[19] Besides dialects with no definite article, the Safaitic inscriptions exhibit about four different article forms, ordered by frequency: h-, ʾ-, ʾl-, and hn-. Unlike the Classical Arabic article, the Old Arabic ʾl almost never exhibits the assimilation of the coda to the coronals; the same situation is attested in the Graeco-Arabica, but in A1 the coda assimilates to the following d, αδαυρα */ʾad-dawra/ 'the region'. The Safaitic and Hismaic texts attest an invariable feminine consonantal -t ending, and the same appears to be true of the earliest Nabataean Arabic. While Greek transcriptions show a mixed situation, it is clear that by the 4th c. CE, the ending had shifted to /-a(h)/ in non-construct position in the settled areas.[2]
"ʾAws son of ʿūḏ (?) son of Bannāʾ son of Kazim the ʾidāmite came because of scarcity; he came to Bannāʾ in this region and they pastured on fresh herbage during Kānūn".
Old Hijazi (Quranic Consonantal Text)
The Qur'anic Consonantal Text shows no case distinction with determined triptotes, but the indefinite accusative is marked with a final /ʾ/. In JSLih 384, an early example of Old Hijazi, the Proto-Central Semitic /-t/ allomorph survives in bnt as opposed to /-ah/ < /-at/ in s1lmh.
Northern Old Arabic preserved the original shape of the relative pronoun ḏ-, which may either have continued to inflect for case or have become frozen as ḏū or ḏī. In one case, it is preceded by the article/demonstrative prefix h-, hḏ */haḏḏV/.[21]
In Safaitic, the existence of mood inflection is confirmed in the spellings of verbs with y/w as the third root consonant. Verbs of this class in result clauses are spelled in such a way that they must have originally terminated in /a/: f ygzy nḏr-h */pa yagziya naḏra-hu/ 'that he may fulfill his vow'. Sometimes verbs terminate in a -n which may reflect an energic ending, thus, s2ʿ-nh 'join him' perhaps */śeʿannoh/.[2]
Old Hijazi
Old Ḥiǧāzī is characterized by the innovative relative pronoun ʾallaḏī, ʾallatī, etc., which is attested once in JSLih 384 and is the common form in the QCT.[4]
The QCT along with the papyri of the first century after the Islamic conquests attest a form with an l-element between the demonstrative base and the distal particle, producing from the original proximal set ḏālika and tilka.
The texts composed in both scripts are almost 50,000 specimens that provide a rather detailed view of Old Arabic.[2]
Dadanitic
A single text, JSLih 384, composed in the Dadanitic script, from northwest Arabia, provides the only non-Nabataean example of Old Arabic from the Hijaz.[2]
Greek
Fragmentary evidence in the Greek script, the "Graeco-Arabica", is equally crucial to help complete our understanding of Old Arabic. It encompasses instances of Old Arabic in Greek transcription from documentary sources. The advantage of the Greek script is that it gives us a clear view of the vowels of Old Arabic and can shed important light on the phonetic realization of the Old Arabic phonemes. Finally, a single pre-Islamic Arabic text composed in Greek letters is known, labelled A1.[2]
Aramaic
Nabataean
Only two texts composed fully in Arabic have been discovered in the Nabataean script. The En Avdat inscription contains two lines of an Arabic prayer or hymn embedded in an Aramaic votive inscription. The second is the Namarah inscription, 328 CE, which was erected about 60 miles (97 km) southeast of Damascus. Most examples of Arabic come from the substratal influence the language exercised on Nabataean Aramaic.[2]
Transitional Nabataeo-Arabic
Funerary inscription in Nabataeo-Arabic script from Al-'Ula, 280 CE
A growing corpus of texts carved in a script in between Classical Nabataean Aramaic and what is now called the Arabic script from Northwest Arabia provides further lexical and some morphological material for the later stages of Old Arabic in this region. The texts provide important insights as to the development of the Arabic script from its Nabataean forebear and are an important glimpse of the Old Ḥigāzī dialects.[2]
Arabic
Only three rather short inscriptions in the fully evolved Arabic script are known from the pre-Islamic period. They come from 6th century CE Syria, two from the southern region on the borders of Hawran, Jabal Usays (528 CE) and Harran (568 CE), and one from Zabad [fr] (512 CE), a town near Aleppo. They shed little light on the linguistic character of Arabic and are more interesting for the information they provide on the evolution of the Arabic script.[2]
^ abAl-Jallad, Ahmad (2020), A Manual of the Historical Grammar of Arabic, 2020-1, Academia:38100372
^ abcdefghijAl-Jallad, Ahmad (2018). "The earliest stages of Arabic and its linguistic classification". The Routledge Handbook of Arabic Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN9781315147062. Academia:18470301.
^Lindstedt, Ilkka (2023). Muhammad and his followers in context: the religious map of late antique Arabia. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 49–50. ISBN978-90-04-68712-7.
^Macdonald, Michael C. A. (2018). "Clues to How a Nabataean May have Spoken, from a Hismaic Inscription". In Curtis, A. H. W.; Al-Hamad, M.; Smith, G. R. (eds.). Near Eastern and Arabian Essays Studies in Honour of John F. Healey. Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement. Vol. 41. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 231–239. Academia:37399737.
^Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2022). "One wāw to rule them all: the origins and fate of wawation in Arabic and its orthography". In Donner, Fred M.; Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca (eds.). Scripts and Scripture: Writing and Religion in Arabia circa 500-700 CE. Chicago: Oriental Institute. ISBN978-1-61491-073-2. Academia:33017695.
^Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2017). "Marginal notes on and additions to An Outline of the Grammar of the Safaitic Inscriptions (ssll 80; Leiden: Brill, 2015), with a supplement to the dictionary". Arabian Epigraphic Notes. Leiden University: 75–96. hdl:1887/47178. ISSN2451-8875. Academia:32428692.
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