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Arabic numerals

Numbers written from 0 to 9
Arabic numerals set in Source Sans typeface

The ten Arabic numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are the most commonly used symbols for writing numbers. The term often also implies a positional notation using the numerals, as well as the use of a decimal base, in particular when contrasted with other systems such as Roman numerals. However, the symbols are also used to write numbers in other bases such as octal, as well as for writing non-numerical information such as trademarks or license plate identifiers.

They are also called Western Arabic numerals, Ghubār numerals, Hindu–Arabic numerals,[1] Western digits, Latin digits, or European digits.[2] The Oxford English Dictionary differentiates them with the fully capitalized Arabic Numerals to refer to the Eastern digits.[3] The term numbers or numerals or digits often implies only these symbols, however this can only be inferred from context.

Europeans first learned of Arabic numerals about the 10th century, though their spread was a gradual process. Two centuries later, in the Algerian city of Béjaïa, the Italian scholar Fibonacci encountered the numerals; his 13th century work Liber Abaci was crucial in making them known throughout Europe. Until the evolution of the printing press in the 15th century, use of Arabic numerals in Europe was mainly confined to Northern Italy.[4] European trade, books, and colonialism subsequently helped popularize the adoption of Arabic numerals around the world. The numerals have found worldwide use significantly beyond the contemporary spread of the Latin alphabet, and have become common in the writing systems where other numeral systems existed previously, such as Chinese and Japanese numerals.

History

Origin

Evolution of Indian numerals into Arabic numerals and their adoption in Europe

Positional decimal notation including a zero symbol was developed in India, using symbols visually distinct from those that would eventually enter into international use. As the concept spread, the sets of symbols used in different regions diverged over time.

The immediate ancestors of the digits now commonly called "Arabic numerals" were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic speakers of Spain and North Africa, with digits at the time in wide use from Libya to Morocco. In the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabs were using the Eastern Arabic numerals or "Mashriki" numerals: ٠, ١, ٢, ٣, ٤, ٥, ٦, ٧, ٨, ٩.[5]

Al-Nasawi wrote in the early 11th century that mathematicians had not agreed on the form of the numerals, but most of them had agreed to train themselves with the forms now known as Eastern Arabic numerals.[6] The oldest specimens of the written numerals available are from Egypt and date to 873–874 AD. They show three forms of the numeral "2" and two forms of the numeral "3", and these variations indicate the divergence between what later became known as the Eastern Arabic numerals and the Western Arabic numerals.[7] The Western Arabic numerals came to be used in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus from the 10th century onward.[8] Some amount of consistency in the Western Arabic numeral forms endured from the 10th century, found in a Latin manuscript of Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae from 976 and the Gerbertian abacus, into the 12th and 13th centuries, in early manuscripts of translations from the city of Toledo.[5]

Calculations were originally performed using a dust board (takht, Latin: tabula), which involved writing symbols with a stylus and erasing them. The use of the dust board appears to have introduced a divergence in terminology as well: whereas the Hindu reckoning was called ḥisāb al-hindī in the east, it was called ḥisāb al-ghubār in the west (literally, "calculation with dust").[9] The numerals themselves were referred to in the west as ashkāl al‐ghubār ("dust figures") or qalam al-ghubår ("dust letters").[10] Al-Uqlidisi later invented a system of calculations with ink and paper "without board and erasing" (bi-ghayr takht wa-lā maḥw bal bi-dawāt wa-qirṭās).[11]

A popular myth claims that the symbols were designed to indicate their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but there is no contemporary evidence of this, and the myth is difficult to reconcile with any digits past 4.[12]

Adoption and spread

The first Arabic numerals in the West appeared in the Codex Albeldensis in Spain.

The first mentions of the numerals from 1 to 9 in the West are found in the 976 Codex Vigilanus, an illuminated collection of various historical documents covering a period from antiquity to the 10th century in Hispania.[13] Other texts show that numbers from 1 to 9 were occasionally supplemented by a placeholder known as sipos, represented as a circle or wheel, reminiscent of the eventual symbol for zero. The Arabic term for zero is sifr (صفر), transliterated into Latin as cifra, and the origin of the English word cipher.

From the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France.[13]

The reception of Arabic numerals in the West was gradual and lukewarm, as other numeral systems circulated in addition to the older Roman numbers. As a discipline, the first to adopt Arabic numerals as part of their own writings were astronomers and astrologists, evidenced from manuscripts surviving from mid-12th-century Bavaria. Reinher of Paderborn (1140–1190) used the numerals in his calendrical tables to calculate the dates of Easter more easily in his text Compotus emendatus.[14]

Italy

A page of the Liber Abaci. The list on the right shows the Fibonacci sequence: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377. The 2, 8, and 9 resemble Arabic numerals more than Eastern Arabic numerals or Indian numerals

Leonardo Fibonacci was a Pisan mathematician who had studied in the Pisan trading colony of Bugia, in what is now Algeria,[15] and he endeavored to promote the numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book Liber Abaci:

When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.

The Liber Abaci introduced the huge advantages of a positional numeric system, and was widely influential. As Fibonacci used the symbols from Béjaïa for the digits, these symbols were also introduced in the same instruction, ultimately leading to their widespread adoption.[16]

Fibonacci's introduction coincided with Europe's commercial revolution of the 12th and 13th centuries, centered in Italy. Positional notation could be used for quicker and more complex mathematical operations (such as currency conversion) than Roman and other numeric systems could. They could also handle larger numbers, did not require a separate reckoning tool, and allowed the user to check a calculation without repeating the entire procedure.[16] Although positional notation opened possibilities that were hampered by previous systems, late medieval Italian merchants did not stop using Roman numerals (or other reckoning tools). Rather, Arabic numerals became an additional tool that could be used alongside others.[16]

Europe

A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals (Talhoffer Thott, 1459). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer presents them with the Hebrew alphabet and astrology.
Table of numerals in many variants, 1757, by Jean-Étienne Montucla

By the late 14th century, only a few texts using Arabic numerals appeared outside of Italy. This suggests that the use of Arabic numerals in commercial practice, and the significant advantage they conferred, remained a virtual Italian monopoly until the late 15th century.[16] This may in part have been due to language barriers: although Fibonacci's Liber Abaci was written in Latin, the Italian abacus traditions was predominantly written in Italian vernaculars that circulated in the private collections of abacus schools or individuals. It was likely difficult for non-Italian merchant bankers to access comprehensive information.

The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the printing press, and they became widely known during the 15th century. Their use grew steadily in other centers of finance and trade such as Lyon.[17] Early evidence of their use in Britain includes: an equal hour horary quadrant from 1396,[18] in England, a 1445 inscription on the tower of Heathfield Church, Sussex; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church, Berkshire; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church, Dorset; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin Cathedral.[19] In central Europe, the King of Hungary Ladislaus the Posthumous, started the use of Arabic numerals, which appear for the first time in a royal document of 1456.[20]

By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe. Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of Anno Domini (“A.D.”) years, and for numbers on clock faces.[citation needed] Other digits (such as Eastern Arabic) were virtually unknown.[citation needed]

Russia

Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals, Cyrillic numerals, derived from the Cyrillic alphabet, were used by South and East Slavs. The system was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century, although it was formally replaced in official use by Peter the Great in 1699.[21] Reasons for Peter's switch from the alphanumerical system are believed to go beyond a surface-level desire to imitate the West. Historian Peter Brown makes arguments for sociological, militaristic, and pedagogical reasons for the change. At a broad, societal level, Russian merchants, soldiers, and officials increasingly came into contact with counterparts from the West and became familiar with the communal use of Arabic numerals. Peter also covertly travelled throughout Northern Europe from 1697 to 1698 during his Grand Embassy and was likely informally exposed to Western mathematics during this time.[22] The Cyrillic system was found to be inferior for calculating practical kinematic values, such as the trajectories and parabolic flight patterns of artillery. With its use, it was difficult to keep pace with Arabic numerals in the growing field of ballistics, whereas Western mathematicians such as John Napier had been publishing on the topic since 1614.[23]

China

Chinese Shang dynasty oracle bone numerals of 14th century B.C.[24][25]

The Chinese Shang dynasty numerals from the 14th century B.C. predates the Indian Brahmi numerals by over 1000 years and shows substantial similarity to the Brahmi numerals. Similar to the modern Arabic numerals, the Shang dynasty numeral system was also decimal based and positional.[26] [27]

While positional Chinese numeral systems such as the counting rod system and Suzhou numerals had been in use prior to the introduction of modern Arabic numerals,[28][29] the externally-developed system was eventually introduced to medieval China by the Hui people. In the early 17th century, European-style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuits.[30][31][32]

Encoding

The ten Arabic numerals are encoded in virtually every character set designed for electric, radio, and digital communication, such as Morse code. They are encoded in ASCII (and therefore in Unicode encodings[33]) at positions 0x30 to 0x39. Masking all but the four least-significant binary digits gives the value of the decimal digit, a design decision facilitating the digitization of text onto early computers. EBCDIC used a different offset, but also possessed the aforementioned masking property.

ASCII Unicode EBCDIC
hex
binary octal decimal hex
0 0011 0000 060 48 30 U+0030 DIGIT ZERO F0
1 0011 0001 061 49 31 U+0031 DIGIT ONE F1
2 0011 0010 062 50 32 U+0032 DIGIT TWO F2
3 0011 0011 063 51 33 U+0033 DIGIT THREE F3
4 0011 0100 064 52 34 U+0034 DIGIT FOUR F4
5 0011 0101 065 53 35 U+0035 DIGIT FIVE F5
6 0011 0110 066 54 36 U+0036 DIGIT SIX F6
7 0011 0111 067 55 37 U+0037 DIGIT SEVEN F7
8 0011 1000 070 56 38 U+0038 DIGIT EIGHT F8
9 0011 1001 071 57 39 U+0039 DIGIT NINE F9

Comparison with other digits

Overview of numeral systems
Symbol Used with scripts Numerals
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 many Arabic numerals
𑁦 𑁧 𑁨 𑁩 𑁪 𑁫 𑁬 𑁭 𑁮 𑁯 Brahmi Brahmi numerals
Devanagari Devanagari numerals
Bengali–Assamese Bengali numerals
Gurmukhi Gurmukhi numerals
Gujarati Gujarati numerals
Odia Odia numerals
Santali Santali numerals
𑇐 𑇑 𑇒 𑇓 𑇔 𑇕 𑇖 𑇗 𑇘 𑇙 Sharada Sharada numerals
Tamil Tamil numerals
Telugu Telugu script § Numerals
Kannada Kannada script § Numerals
Malayalam Malayalam numerals
Sinhala Sinhala numerals
Burmese Burmese numerals
Tibetan Tibetan numerals
Mongolian Mongolian numerals
Khmer Khmer numerals
Thai Thai numerals
Lao Lao script § Numerals
Sundanese Sundanese numerals
Javanese Javanese numerals
Balinese Balinese numerals
٠ ١ ٢ ٣ ٤ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٩ Arabic Eastern Arabic numerals
۰ ۱ ۲ ۳ ۴ ۵ ۶ ۷ ۸ ۹ Persian / Dari / Pashto
۰ ۱ ۲ ۳ ۴ ۵ ۶ ۷ ۸ ۹ Urdu / Shahmukhi
- Ethio-Semitic Ge'ez numerals
East Asia Chinese numerals

See also

Citations

  1. ^ "Arabic numeral". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. 2020. Archived from the original on 21 November 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2021.
  2. ^ Terminology for Digits Archived 26 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Unicode Consortium.
  3. ^ "Arabic", Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition
  4. ^ Danna, Raffaele (13 January 2021). "Figuring Out: The Spread of Hindu-Arabic Numerals in the European Tradition of Practical Mathematics (13th–16th Centuries)". Nuncius. 36 (1): 5–48. doi:10.1163/18253911-bja10004. ISSN 0394-7394.
  5. ^ a b Burnett, Charles (2002). Dold-Samplonius, Yvonne; Van Dalen, Benno; Dauben, Joseph; Folkerts, Menso (eds.). From China to Paris: 2000 Years Transmission of Mathematical Ideas. Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 237–288. ISBN 978-3-515-08223-5. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  6. ^ Kunitzsch 2003, p. 7: "Les personnes qui se sont occupées de la science du calcul n'ont pas été d'accord sur une partie des formes de ces neuf signes; mais la plupart d'entre elles sont convenues de les former comme il suit."
  7. ^ Kunitzsch 2003, p. 5.
  8. ^ Kunitzsch 2003, pp. 12–13: "While specimens of Western Arabic numerals from the early period—the tenth to thirteenth centuries—are still not available, we know at least that Hindu reckoning (called ḥisāb al-ghubār) was known in the West from the 10th century onward..."
  9. ^ Kunitzsch 2003, p. 8.
  10. ^ Kunitzsch 2003, p. 10.
  11. ^ Kunitzsch 2003, pp. 7–8.
  12. ^ Ifrah, Georges (1998). The universal history of numbers: from prehistory to the invention of the computer. Translated by David Bellos (from the French). London: Harvill Press. pp. 356–357. ISBN 9781860463242.
  13. ^ a b Nothaft, C. Philipp E. (3 May 2020). "Medieval Europe's satanic ciphers: on the genesis of a modern myth". British Journal for the History of Mathematics. 35 (2): 107–136. doi:10.1080/26375451.2020.1726050. ISSN 2637-5451. S2CID 213113566.
  14. ^ Herold, Werner (2005). "Der "computus emendatus" des Reinher von Paderborn". ixtheo.de (in German). Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  15. ^ K. K. Tung (2016). Topics in Mathematical Modeling. Princeton University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4008-8405-6.
  16. ^ a b c d Danna, Raffaele (12 July 2021). The Spread of Hindu-Arabic Numerals in the European Tradition of Practical Arithmetic: a Socio-Economic Perspective (13th–16th centuries) (Doctoral thesis). University of Cambridge. doi:10.17863/cam.72497. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  17. ^ Danna, Raffaele; Iori, Martina; Mina, Andrea (22 June 2022). "A Numerical Revolution: The Diffusion of Practical Mathematics and the Growth of Pre-modern European Economies". SSRN 4143442.
  18. ^ "14th century timepiece unearthed in Qld farm shed". ABC News. Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
  19. ^ See G. F. Hill, The Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe, for more examples.
  20. ^ Erdélyi: Magyar művelődéstörténet 1-2. kötet. Kolozsvár, 1913, 1918.
  21. ^ Conatser Segura, Sylvia (26 May 2020). Orthographic Reform and Language Planning in Russian History (Honors thesis). Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  22. ^ Brown, Peter B. (2012). "Muscovite Arithmetic in Seventeenth-Century Russian Civilization: Is It Not Time to Discard the "Backwardness" Label?". Russian History. 39 (4): 393–459. doi:10.1163/48763316-03904001. ISSN 0094-288X. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  23. ^ Lockwood, E. H. (October 1978). "Mathematical discoveries 1600-1750, by P. L. Griffiths. Pp 121. £2·75. 1977. ISBN 0 7223 1006 4 (Stockwell)". The Mathematical Gazette. 62 (421): 219. doi:10.2307/3616704. ISSN 0025-5572. JSTOR 3616704. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  24. ^ Campbell, Douglas M.; Higgins, John C. (1984). Mathematics: People, Problems, Results. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-534-02879-4.
  25. ^ The Shorter Science & Civilisation in China Vol 2, An abridgement by Colin Ronan of Joseph Needham's original text, Table 20, p. 6, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-23582-0
  26. ^ Campbell, Douglas M.; Higgins, John C. (1984). Mathematics: People, Problems, Results. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-534-02879-4.
  27. ^ The Shorter Science & Civilisation in China Vol 2, An abridgement by Colin Ronan of Joseph Needham's original text, Table 20, p. 6, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-23582-0
  28. ^ Shell-Gellasch, Amy (2015). Algebra in context : introductory algebra from origins to applications. J. B. Thoo. Baltimore. ISBN 978-1-4214-1728-8. OCLC 907657424.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  29. ^ Uy, Frederick L. (January 2003). "The Chinese Numeration System and Place Value". Teaching Children Mathematics. 9 (5): 243–247. doi:10.5951/tcm.9.5.0243. ISSN 1073-5836. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  30. ^ Helaine Selin, ed. (1997). Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures. Springer. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-7923-4066-9. Archived from the original on 27 October 2015. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  31. ^ Meuleman, Johan H. (2002). Islam in the era of globalization: Muslim attitudes towards modernity and identity. Psychology Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-7007-1691-3. Archived from the original on 27 October 2015. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  32. ^ Peng Yoke Ho (2000). Li, Qi and Shu: An Introduction to Science and Civilization in China. Mineola, New York: Courier Dover Publications. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-486-41445-4. Archived from the original on 27 October 2015. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
  33. ^ "The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0" (PDF). unicode.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2001. Retrieved 1 September 2021.

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Eva Luise KöhlerEva dan Horst KöhlerLahir(1947-01-02)2 Januari 1947LudwigsburgKebangsaanJermanPekerjaanPolitisi Eva Luise Köhlerⓘ (lahir 2 Januari 1947 dengan nama Eva Luise Bohnet) adalah ibu negara Jerman sejak tahun 2004. Dia merupakan istri Presiden Jerman, Horst Köhler. Dia mempelajari sejarah, Jermanistik dan agama. Dia menyelesaikan studinya pada 1966 dan kemudian menjadi guru bahasa Jerman. Eva Köhler adalah anggota Partai Demokrasi Sosial Jerman dari tahun 1972 sampai 1990 dan be…

This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Hsinbyushin Bridge – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Hsinbyushin Bridge is a 1,850 metres (6,070 ft) long bridge over the Chindwin river between Sagaing Region and Magway Region in Myanmar. It is …

Indonesian stew dish GulaiA plate of chicken gulai.TypeStewCourseMainPlace of originIndonesia[1][2][3][4][5]Region or stateSumatra[5]Associated cuisineIndonesia,[1] Malaysia,[6][7] Singapore, Brunei, and Southern ThailandServing temperatureHot and room temperature  Media: Gulai Gulai is a class of spicy and rich stew commonly found in Indonesia,[4] Malaysia and Singapore. The main ingredients of this dish ar…

American rock band This article is about the Californian band Incubus. For the metal band formerly known as Incubus, see Opprobrium (band). IncubusIncubus performing in 2023Background informationOriginCalabasas, California, U.S.Genres Alternative rock alternative metal funk metal nu metal Years active1991–presentLabels Island Epic Immortal WEG Virgin Members Brandon Boyd Mike Einziger José Pasillas Chris Kilmore Ben Kenney Past members Alex Katunich (aka Dirk Lance) Gavin Koppell Websiteincub…

National park in Uusimaa, Finland You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Finnish. (January 2017) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate tex…

Australian TV series or program Under CapricornGenremini-seriesWritten byTony MorphettDirected byRod HardyStarringLisa HarrowJohn HallamPeter CousensCountry of originAustraliaOriginal languageEnglishNo. of episodes2ProductionProducerJock BlairRunning time2 x 2 hoursBudget$2.3 million[1]Original releaseNetworkNetwork NineRelease1983 (1983) (Adelaide)14 June 1984 (1984-06-14) (Sydney) Under Capricorn is a 1983 Australian miniseries based on the novel by Helen Simps…

Cricket stadium Iqbal StadiumGround informationLocationStadium Road, FaisalabadCoordinates31°26′2″N 73°5′9″E / 31.43389°N 73.08583°E / 31.43389; 73.08583EstablishmentOctober 1978Capacity18,000[1]OwnerFaisalabad City Cricket Association/PCBOperatorFaisalabad City Cricket AssociationTenantsFaisalabad cricket team, Central Punjab, PakistanEnd namesPavilion EndGolf Course EndInternational informationFirst Test16 Oct – 21 Oct 1978: Pakistan v  I…

Серия телесериала «Футурама»Проблема с попплерамиThe Problem with Popplers Основная информация Номер серии Сезон 2 (на ТВ: 2)Серия (на ТВ: 18)Номер 28 Режиссёры Крис СэйвГрэг Ванзо Авторы сценария Патрик ВерронДэрин Генри (история) Код серии 2ACV15 Дата выхода 7 мая 2000 Длительность 21…

WWE livestreaming event NXT DeadlinePromotional poster featuring Joe Gacy, JD McDonagh, Axiom, Carmelo Hayes, and Grayson WallerPromotionWWEBrand(s)NXTDateDecember 10, 2022CityOrlando, FloridaVenueWWE Performance CenterWWE Network event chronology ← PreviousSurvivor Series: WarGames Next →Royal Rumble NXT Deadline chronology ← PreviousFirst Next →2023 NXT major events chronology ← PreviousHalloween Havoc Next →Vengeance Day The 2022 NXT Deadline (stylize…

Artikel ini tidak memiliki referensi atau sumber tepercaya sehingga isinya tidak bisa dipastikan. Tolong bantu perbaiki artikel ini dengan menambahkan referensi yang layak. Tulisan tanpa sumber dapat dipertanyakan dan dihapus sewaktu-waktu.Cari sumber: Obat Antitrombosit – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTOR artikel ini perlu dirapikan agar memenuhi standar Wikipedia. Tidak ada alasan yang diberikan. Silakan kembangkan artikel ini semampu An…

Mortal Kombat vs. DC UniverseNhà phát triểnMidway Amusement Games, Warner Bros. Interactive EntertainmentNhà phát hànhMidway GamesÂm nhạcCris Velasco Dòng trò chơiMortal KombatCông nghệUnreal Engine 3 [1]Nền tảngPlayStation 3, Xbox 360[2]Phát hànhNA: 16 tháng 11 năm 2008AU: 20 tháng 11 năm 2008EU: 21 tháng 11 năm 2008Thể loạiFighting, Adventure, CrossoverChế độ chơiChơi đơn, multiplayer Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe (còn có tên g…

Louis TomlinsonLouis Tomlinson di GlasgowLahirLouis Troy Austin24 Desember 1991 (umur 31)Doncaster, InggrisPekerjaan Penyanyi penulis lagu Tahun aktif2010–sekarangKekayaan bersih£42 juta[1]PasanganEleanor Calder (2011–2015, 2017–sekarang)Anak1Karier musikGenre Pop electropop pop rock InstrumenVokalLabel Syco Columbia Epic BMG Artis terkaitOne DirectionSitus weblouis-tomlinson.comTanda tangan Louis William Tomlinson (/ˈluːi ˈtɒmlɪnsən/;[2] lahir Lo…

Piracy in the Caribbean region from the 1500s to the 1830s For the franchise, including the series of films, see Pirates of the Caribbean. Central America and the Caribbean (detailed pdf map)The era of piracy in the Caribbean began in the 1500s and phased out in the 1830s after the navies of the nations of Western Europe and North America with colonies in the Caribbean began combating pirates. The period during which pirates were most successful was from the 1660s to 1730s. Piracy flourished in …

American steamboat Mountain Gem at Eureka Bar, on the Snake River, circa 1906. History NameMountain Gem In service1904 Out of service1912 IdentificationU.S. #201045 FateAbandoned 1924 NotesMachinery to Grahamona in 1912. General characteristics TypeRiverine all-purpose Tonnage469 GT; 282 NT Length150 ft (45.72 m) Beam26.5 ft (8.08 m) Depth5 ft (1.52 m) depth of hold Installed powertwin steam engines, horizontally mounted, each with bore of 13 in (33.0 cm) …

Den här artikeln har skapats av Lsjbot, ett program (en robot) för automatisk redigering. (2015-11)Artikeln kan innehålla fakta- eller språkfel, eller ett märkligt urval av fakta, källor eller bilder. Mallen kan avlägsnas efter en kontroll av innehållet (vidare information) Nāḩiyat Markaz as Suqaylibīyah (ناحية مركز السقيلبية) Subdistrikt Land  Syrien Provins Hamah Höjdläge 173 m ö.h. Koordinater 35°22′01″N 36°20′37″Ö / 3…

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