Iloco (also Ilokano; /iːloʊˈkɑːnoʊ/;[6] Ilocano: Pagsasao nga Iloko) is an Austronesian language predominantly spoken in the Philippines by the Ilocano people. It ranks as the third most widely spoken native language in the country and serves as a lingua franca in Northern Luzon, particularly among the Igorot people and the indigenous settlers of Cagayan Valley.
As an Austronesian language, Ilocano shares linguistic roots with other Philippine languages and is related to Malay (both Indonesian and Malaysian), Tetum, Chamorro, Fijian, Māori, Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Paiwan, and Malagasy. It exhibits close ties with several Austronesian languages in Northern Luzon and has some degree of mutual intelligibility with the Balangao language and certain eastern dialects of Bontoc.[7]
The Ilocano people historically utilized an indigenous writing system known as kur-itan. There have been proposals to revive this script by incorporating its instruction in public and private schools within Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur, where Ilocano is predominantly spoken.[8]
Classification
Iloco (Ilocano) like all Philippine languages, belongs to the Austronesian language family, which is believed to have originated in Taiwan.[9][10] It constitutes its own branch within the Philippine Cordilleran subfamily and is spoken as a first language by approximately seven million people.[3]
As a lingua franca of Northern Luzon and several areas of Central Luzon, Ilocano is also spoken as a second language by over two million people, including native speakers of Ibanag, Ivatan, Pangasinan, Sambal, and other regional languages.[2]
Ilokano-speaking density per province. Enlarge picture to see percent distribution.Area where Ilocano is the majority language.
The Ilocano language is primarily spoken in the Ilocos Region, the Babuyan Islands, the Cordillera Administrative Region, Cagayan Valley, and the northern and western parts of Central Luzon.[11][12][13][14] It is also spoken in Batanes, parts of Mindoro and Palawan, and scattered areas in Mindanao, particularly in the Soccsksargen region.[15] Internationally, it is spoken in the United States, with the largest concentrations in Hawaii and California,[16] as well as in Canada.[17] In Hawaii, 17% of those who speak a non-English language at home speak Ilocano, making it the most spoken non-English language in the state.[18]
In September 2012, the province of La Union became the first in the Philippines to pass an ordinance recognizing Ilocano (Iloko) as an official provincial language, alongside Filipino and English. This ordinance aims to protect and revitalize the Ilocano language, although other languages, such as Pangasinan, Kankanaey, and Ibaloi, are also spoken in La Union.[19][4]
Writing System
Our Father prayer from Doctrina Cristiana, 1621. Written in Ilocano using Baybayin script.
Modern alphabet
The modern Ilokano alphabet consists of 29 letters:[20]
Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, LLll, Mm, Nn, Ññ, NGng, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, and Zz
Pre-colonial
Pre-colonial Ilocano people of all classes wrote in a syllabic system known as Baybayin prior to European arrival. They used a system that is termed as an abugida, or an alphasyllabary. It was similar to the Tagalog and Pangasinan scripts, where each character represented a consonant-vowel, or CV, sequence. The Ilocano version, however, was the first to designate coda consonants with a diacritic mark – a cross or virama – shown in the Doctrina Cristiana of 1621, one of the earliest surviving Ilokano publications. Before the addition of the virama, writers had no way to designate coda consonants. The reader, on the other hand, had to guess whether a consonant not succeeding a vowel is read or not, for it is not written. Vowel apostrophes interchange between e or i, and o or u. Due to this, the vowels e and i are interchangeable, and letters o and u, for instance, tendera and tindira ('shop-assistant').
Modern
Ilocano version of the Book of Mormon, written with the Tagalog system, as can be seen by the use of the letter K
In recent times, there have been two systems in use: the Spanish system and the Tagalog system. In the Spanish system words of Spanish origin kept their spellings. Native words, on the other hand, conformed to the Spanish rules of spelling. Most older generations of Ilocanos use the Spanish system.
In the alphabet system based on that of Tagalog there is more of a phoneme-to-letter correspondence, which better reflects the actual pronunciation of the word.[a] The letters ng constitute a digraph and count as a single letter, following n in alphabetization. As a result, numo ('humility') appears before ngalngal ('to chew') in newer dictionaries. Words of foreign origin, most notably those from Spanish, need to be changed in spelling to better reflect Ilocano phonology. Words of English origin may or may not conform to this orthography. A prime example using this system is the weekly magazine Bannawag.
Samples of the two systems
The following are two versions of the Lord's Prayer. The one on the left is written using Spanish-based orthography, while the one on the right uses the Tagalog-based system.
1. In Ilocano phonology, the labiodental fricative sound /f/ does not exist. Its approximate sound is /p/. Therefore, in words of Spanish or English origin, /f/ becomes /p/. In particular (yet not always the case), last names beginning with /f/ are often said with /p/, for example Fernández /per.'nan.des/.2. The sound /h/ only occurs in loanwords, and in the negative variant haan.
Ilocano and Education
With the implementation by the Spanish of the Bilingual Education System of 1897, Ilocano, together with the other seven major languages (those that have at least a million speakers), was allowed to be used as a medium of instruction until the second grade. It is recognized by the Commission on the Filipino Language as one of the major languages of the Philippines.[21] Constitutionally, Ilocano is an auxiliary official language in the regions where it is spoken and serves as auxiliary media of instruction therein.[22]
In 2009, the Department of Education instituted Department Order No. 74, s. 2009 stipulating that "mother tongue-based multilingual education" would be implemented. In 2012, Department Order No. 16, s. 2012 stipulated that the mother tongue-based multilingual system was to be implemented for Kindergarten to Grade 3 Effective School Year 2012–2013.[23] Ilocano is used in public schools mostly in the Ilocos Region and the Cordilleras. It is the primary medium of instruction from Kindergarten to Grade 3 (except for the Filipino and English subjects) and is also a separate subject from Grade 1 to Grade 3. Thereafter, English and Filipino are introduced as mediums of instruction.
Ilocano literature serves as a vibrant reflection of the rich cultural heritage and history of the Ilocano people, tracing its origins to their animistic past. It encompasses a profound backdrop of mythology, folklore, and superstition, all rooted in a tradition of oral history shaped by cultural evolution. Key narratives include creation myths featuring figures such as Aran, Angalo, and Namarsua, the Creator, alongside tales of benevolent and malevolent spirits that are integral to the Ilocano worldview.
Shaped by centuries of interaction with diverse influences, Ilocano literature encompasses a wide array of literary forms, including epic poetry, folk tales, proverbs, riddles, religious documents, and songs. Central themes include resilience, familial loyalty, honor, and a deep connection to both the natural and spiritual realms.
Ancient Ilocano poets articulated their expressions through folk and war songs, as well as the dallot, an improvised long poem delivered in a melodic manner. A significant work within this literary tradition is the epic Biag ni Lam-ang (The Life of Lam-ang), which stands as one of the few indigenous narratives to have survived colonial influence. While it has assimilated foreign elements over time, it continues to embody essential values such as courage, loyalty, and the importance of familial and ancestral bonds.
Ilocano culture is further celebrated through life rituals, festivities, and oral traditions, expressed in songs (kankanta), dances (salsala), poems (dandaniw), proverbs (pagsasao), and literary duels (bucanegan). These rich literary forms not only preserve Ilocano identity but also demonstrate its adaptability within the evolving Filipino cultural landscape.
During the Spanish regime, Iloco poetry was heavily influenced by Spanish literary forms, with the earliest written Iloco poems largely based on romances translated from Spanish by Francisco Lopez. In 1621, Lopez published the Doctrina Cristiana, the first book printed in Iloco, marking a significant milestone in the documentation of Ilocano literature. The 17th-century author Pedro Bucaneg, known for his collaboration with Lopez on the Doctrina, is celebrated as the "Father of Ilocano Poetry and Literature," credited for composing the epic Biag ni Lam-ang ("Life of Lam-ang"). This poem, which narrates the extraordinary adventures of the Ilocano hero Lam-ang, encapsulates core values of the Ilocano people, such as courage, loyalty, and respect for familial and ancestral ties. A study of Iloco poetry can also be found in the Gramatica Ilokana, published in 1895, which is based on Lopez's earlier work, Arte de la Lengua Iloca, published in 1627 but likely written before 1606.
In the 18th century, missionaries played a crucial role in promoting literacy and religious education among the Ilocano population through the publication of both religious and secular texts, including Sumario de las Indulgencias de la Santa Correa by Fr. Jacinto Rivera and a translation of St. Vincent Ferrer’s sermons by Fr. Antonio Mejia. The 19th century witnessed the rise of Leona Florentino, who has been recognized as the "National Poetess of the Philippines," although her sentimental poetry received criticism from modern readers for lacking depth and structure.
The early 20th century brought forth notable Ilocano writers such as Manuel Arguilla, whose prose effectively captured the unique aspects of Ilocano culture during his time as a World War II guerrilla hero. Carlos Bulosan emerged as another prominent figure, with his novel America is in the Heart celebrated as a significant work in the Filipino-American literary canon. Other distinguished writers from this period include F. Sionil Jose, known for his epic sagas set in Pangasinan, and Isabelo de los Reyes, who played a pivotal role in preserving and publishing Ilocano literary works, including the earliest known text of Biag ni Lam-ang.
Phonology
Segmental
Vowels
While there is no official dialectology for Ilocano, the usually agreed dialects of Ilocano are two, which are differentiated only by the way the letter e is pronounced. In the Amianan (Northern) dialect, there exist only five vowels while the older Abagatan (Southern) dialect employs six.
Amianan: /a/, /i/, /u/, /ɛ~e/, /o/
Abagatan: /a/, /i/, /u/, /ɛ~e/, /o/, /ɯ/
Reduplicate vowels are not slurred together, but voiced separately with an intervening glottal stop:
saan: /sa.ʔan/ 'no'
siit: /si.ʔit/ 'thorn'
The letter in bold is the graphic (written) representation of the vowel.
For a better rendition of vowel distribution, please refer to the IPA Vowel Chart.
Unstressed /a/ is pronounced [ɐ] in all positions except final syllables, like madí[mɐˈdi] ('cannot be') but ngiwat ('mouth') is pronounced [ˈŋiwat]. Unstressed /a/ in final-syllables is mostly pronounced [ɐ] across word boundaries.
Although the modern (Tagalog) writing system is largely phonetic, there are some notable conventions.
O/U and I/E
In native morphemes, the close back rounded vowel/u/ is written differently depending on the syllable. If the vowel occurs in the ultima of the morpheme, it is written o; elsewhere, u.
Instances such as masapulmonto, 'You will manage to find it, to need it', are still consistent. Note that masapulmonto is, in fact, three morphemes: masapul (verb base), -mo (pronoun) and -(n)to (future particle). An exception to this rule, however, is laud/la.ʔud/ ('west'). Also, u in final stressed syllables can be pronounced [o], like [dɐ.ˈnom] for danum ('water').
The two vowels are not highly differentiated in native words due to fact that /o/ was an allophone of /u/ in the history of the language. In words of foreign origin, notably Spanish, they are phonemic.
Example:uso 'use'; oso 'bear'
Unlike u and o, i and e are not allophones, but i in final stressed syllables in words ending in consonants can be [ɛ], like ubíng[ʊ.ˈbɛŋ] ('child').
Unstressed /i/ and /u/ are pronounced [ɪ] and [ʊ] except in final syllables, like pintás ('beauty') [pɪn.ˈtas] and buténg ('fear') [bʊ.ˈtɛŋ,bʊ.ˈtɯŋ] but bangir ('other side') and parabur ('grace/blessing') are pronounced [ˈba.ŋiɾ] and [pɐ.ˈɾa.buɾ]. Unstressed /i/ and /u/ in final syllables are mostly pronounced [ɪ] and [ʊ] across word boundaries.
Pronunciation of ⟨e⟩
The letter ⟨e⟩ represents two vowels in the non-nuclear dialects (areas outside the Ilocos provinces) [ɛ~e] in words of foreign origin and [ɯ] in native words, and only one in the nuclear dialects of the Ilocos provinces, [ɛ~e].
Realization of ⟨e⟩
Word
Gloss
Origin
Nuclear
Non-nuclear
keddeng
'assign'
Native
[kɛd.dɛŋ,ked.deŋ]
[kɯd.dɯŋ]
elepante
'elephant'
Spanish
[ʔɛ.lɛ.pan.tɛ,ʔe.le.pan.te]
Diphthongs
Diphthongs are combination of a vowel and /i/ or /u/. In the orthography, the secondary vowels (underlying /i/ or /u/) are written with their corresponding glide, y or w, respectively. Of all the possible combinations, only /aj/ or /ej/, /iw/, /aw/ and /uj/ occur. In the orthography, vowels in sequence such as uo and ai, do not coalesce into a diphthong, rather, they are pronounced with an intervening glottal stop, for example, buok 'hair' /bʊ.ʔok/ and dait 'sew' /da.ʔit/.
Diphthongs
Diphthong
Orthography
Example
/au/
aw (for native words) / au (for spanish loanwords)
kabaw 'senile', autoridad ‘authority’
/iu/
iw
iliw 'home sick'
/ai/
ay (for native words) / ai (for spanish loanwords)
The diphthong /ei/ is a variant of /ai/ in native words. Other occurrences are in words of Spanish and English origin. Examples are reyna/ˈɾei.na/ (from Spanish reina, 'queen') and treyner/ˈtɾei.nɛɾ/ ('trainer'). The diphthongs /oi/ and /ui/ may be interchanged since /o/ is an allophone of /u/ in final syllables. Thus, apúy ('fire') may be pronounced /ɐ.ˈpoi/ and baboy ('pig') may be pronounced /ˈba.bui/.
As for the diphthong /au/, the general rule is to use /aw/ for native words while /au/ will be used for spanish loanword such as the words autoridad, autonomia, automatiko. The same rule goes to the diphthong /ai/.
All consonantal phonemes except /h,ʔ/ may be a syllable onset or coda. The phoneme /h/ is a borrowed sound (except in the negative variant haan) and rarely occurs in coda position. Although the Spanish word reloj 'clock' would have been heard as [re.loh], the final /h/ is dropped resulting in /re.lo/. However, this word also may have entered the Ilokano lexicon at early enough a time that the word was still pronounced /re.loʒ/, with the j pronounced as in French, resulting in /re.los/ in Ilokano. As a result, both /re.lo/ and /re.los/ occur.
The glottal stop /ʔ/ is not permissible as coda; it can only occur as onset. Even as an onset, the glottal stop disappears in affixation. Take, for example, the root aramat[ʔɐ.ɾa.mat], 'use'. When prefixed with ag-, the expected form is *[ʔɐɡ.ʔɐ.ɾa.mat]. But, the actual form is [ʔɐ.ɡɐ.ɾa.mat]; the glottal stop disappears. In a reduplicated form, the glottal stop returns and participates in the template, CVC, agar-aramat[ʔɐ.ɡaɾ.ʔɐ.ɾa.mat]. Glottal stop /ʔ/sometimes occurs non-phonemically in coda in words ending in vowels, but only before a pause.
Stops are pronounced without aspiration. When they occur as coda, they are not released, for example, sungbat[sʊŋ.bat̚] 'answer', 'response'.
Ilokano is one of the Philippine languages which is excluded from [ɾ]-[d] allophony, as /r/ in many cases is derived from a Proto-Austronesian *R; compare bago (Tagalog) and baró (Ilokano) 'new'.
The language marginally has a trill [r] which is spelled as rr, for example, serrek[sɯ.ˈrɯk] 'to enter'. Trill [r] is sometimes an allophone of [ɾ] in word-initial position, syllable-final, and word-final positions, spelled as single ⟨r⟩, for example, ruar 'outside' [ɾwaɾ] ~ [rwar]. It is only pronounced flap [ɾ] in affixation and across word boundaries, especially when vowel-ending word precedes word-initial ⟨r⟩. But it is different in proper names of foreign origin, mostly Spanish, like Serrano, which is correctly pronounced [sɛ.ˈrano]. Some speakers, however, pronounce Serrano as [sɛ.ˈɾano].
Prosody
Primary stress
The placement of primary stress is lexical in Ilocano. This results in minimal pairs such as /ˈkaː.jo/ ('wood') and /ka.ˈjo/ ('you' (plural or polite)) or /ˈkiː.ta/ ('class, type, kind') and /ki.ˈta/ ('see'). In written Ilokano the reader must rely on context, thus ⟨kayo⟩ and ⟨kita⟩. Primary stress can fall only on either the penult or the ultima of the root, as seen in the previous examples.
While stress is unpredictable in Ilokano, there are notable patterns that can determine where stress will fall depending on the structures of the penult, the ultima and the origin of the word.[2]
Foreign words – the stress of foreign (mostly Spanish) words adopted into Ilokano fall on the same syllable as the original.[h]
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
doktór
doctor
Spanish origin
agmaného
(to) drive
Spanish origin ('I drive')
agrekórd
(to) record
English origin (verb)
agtárget
to target
English origin (verb)
CVC.'CV(C)#but 'CVŋ.kV(C)# – in words with a closed penult, stress falls on the ultima, except for instances of /-ŋ.k-/ where it is the penult.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
addá
there is/are
Closed penult
takkí
feces
Closed penult
bibíngka
(a type of delicacy)
-ŋ.k sequence
'C(j/w)V# – in words whose ultima is a glide plus a vowel, stress falls on the ultima.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
al-aliá
ghost
Consonant–glide–vowel
ibiáng
to involve (someone or something)
Consonant–glide–vowel
ressuát
creation
Consonant–glide–vowel
C.'CV:.ʔVC# – in words where VʔV and V is the same vowel for the penult and ultima, the stress falls on the penult.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
buggúong
fermented fish or shrimp paste
Vowel–glottal–vowel
máag
idiot
Vowel–glottal–vowel
síit
thorn, spine, fish bone
Vowel–glottal–vowel
Secondary stress
Secondary stress occurs in the following environments:
Syllables whose coda is the onset of the next, i.e., the syllable before a geminate.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
pannakakíta
ability to see
Syllable before geminate
keddéng
judgement, decision
Syllable before geminate
ubbíng
children
Syllable before geminate
Reduplicated consonant-vowel sequence resulting from morphology or lexicon.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
agsasaó
speaks, is speaking
Reduplicate CV
ar-ariá
ghost, spirit
Reduplicate CV
agdadáit
sews, is sewing
Reduplicate CV
Vowel length
Vowel length coincides with stressed syllables (primary or secondary) and only on open syllables except for ultimas, for example, /'ka:.jo/ 'tree' versus /ka.'jo/ (second person plural ergative pronoun).
Stress shift
As primary stress can fall only on the penult or the ultima, suffixation causes a shift in stress one syllable to the right. The vowel of open penults that result lengthen as a consequence.
Stem
Suffix
Result
Gloss
/ˈpuː.dut/ (heat)
/-ɯn/ (Goal focus)
/pu.ˈduː.tɯn/
to warm/heat (something)
/da.ˈlus/ (clean)
/-an/ (Directional focus)
/da.lu.ˈsan/
to clean (something)
Grammar
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)
Ilocano is typified by a predicate-initial structure. Verbs and adjectives occur in the first position of the sentence, then the rest of the sentence follows.
Ilocano uses a highly complex list of affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes and enclitics) and reduplications to indicate a wide array of grammatical categories. Learning simple root words and corresponding affixes goes a long way in forming cohesive sentences.[25]
Ilocano uses two number systems, one native and the other derived from Spanish.
Numbers
0
ibbong awan (lit. 'none')
sero
0.25 (1/4)
pagkapat
kuarto
0.50 (1/2)
kagudua
mitad
1
maysa
uno
2
dua
dos
3
tallo
tres
4
uppat
kuatro
5
lima
singko
6
innem
sais
7
pito
siete
8
walo
otso
9
siam
nuebe
10
sangapulo (lit. 'a group of ten')
dies
11
sangapulo ket maysa
onse
12
sangapulo ket dua
dose
20
duapulo
beinte
30
tallopulo
treinta
50
limapulo
singkuenta
100
sangagasut (lit. 'a group of one hundred')
sien
1,000
sangaribo (lit. 'a group of one thousand'), ribo
mil
10,000
sangalaksa (lit. 'a group of ten thousand'), sangapulo a ribo
dies mil
1,000,000
sangariwriw (lit. 'a group of one million')
milion
1,000,000,000
sangabilion (American English, 'billion')
bilion (US-influenced), mil miliones
Ilocano uses a mixture of native and Spanish numbers. Traditionally Ilocano numbers are used for quantities and Spanish numbers for time or days and references.
Examples:
Spanish:
Mano ti tawenmo?
'How old are you (in years)?' (Lit. 'How many years do you have?')
Baintiuno.
'Twenty one.'
Luktanyo dagiti Bibliayo iti libro ni Juan kapitulo tres bersikolo diesiseis.
'Open your Bibles to the book of John chapter three verse sixteen.'
Ilocano:
Mano a kilo ti bagas ti kayatmo?
'How many kilos of rice do you want?'
Sangapulo laeng.
'Ten only.'
Adda dua nga ikanna.
'He has two fish.' (lit. 'There are two fish with him.')
Days of the week
Days of the week are directly borrowed from Spanish.
Days of the Week
Monday
Lunes
Tuesday
Martes
Wednesday
Mierkoles
Thursday
Huebes
Friday
Biernes
Saturday
Sabado
Sunday
Domingo
Months
Like the days of the week, the names of the months are taken from Spanish.
Months
January
Enero
July
Hulio
February
Pebrero
August
Agosto
March
Marso
September
Septiembre
April
Abril
October
Oktubre
May
Mayo
November
Nobiembre
June
Hunio
December
Disiembre
Units of time
The names of the units of time are either native or derived from Spanish. The first entries in the following table are native; the second entries are Spanish-derived.
Units of time
second
kanito segundo
minute
daras minuto
hour
oras
day
aldaw
week
lawas dominggo (lit. 'Sunday'), semana (rare)
month
bulan
year
tawen anio
To mention time, Ilocanos use a mixture of Spanish and Ilocano:
1:00 a.m. Ala una iti bigat (one in the morning)
2:30 p.m. Alas dos y media iti malem, in Spanish: A las dos y media de la tarde (half past two in the afternoon)
6:00 p.m Alas sais iti sardang (six in the evening)
7:00 p.m Alas siete iti rabii (seven in the evening)
12:00 noon Alas dose iti pangaldaw (twelve noon)
More Ilocano words
Note: adjacent vowels are pronounced separately, and are not slurred together, as in ba-ak, or in la-ing[citation needed]
abay = beside; wedding party
abalayan = parents-in-law
adal = study
adayu = far
adda = affirming the presence or existence of a person, place, or object
ading = younger sibling; can also be applied to someone who is younger than the speaker
adipen = slave
ala = to take
ammo = know
anus = perseverance, patience (depends on the usage)
ania/inia = what
apan = go; to go
apa = fight, argument; ice cream cone
apay = why
apong = grandparent
apong baket/lilang/lola = grandmother
apong lakay/lilong/lolo = grandfather
aramid = build, work (Southern dialect)
aruangan/ruangan = door
asideg = near
atiddug = long
awan = none / nothing
awan te remedio? = there is no cure?
ay naku! = oh my goodness!
ay sus!/Ay Apo! = oh, Jesus/oh, my God!
baak = ancient; old
bado = clothes; outfit; shirt
bagi = one's body; ownership
balitok = gold
balong = same as baro
bangles = spoiled food
(i/bag)baga = (to) tell/speak
bagtit/mauyong = crazy/bad word in Ilokano,[clarification needed] drunk person, meager
^However, there are notable exceptions. The reverse is true for the vowel /u/ where it has two representations in native words. The vowel /u/ is written o when it appears in the last syllable of the word or of the root, for example kitaemonto /ki.ta.e.mun.tu/. In addition, e represents two vowels in the southern dialect: [ɛ] and [ɯ].
^The '#' represents the start of the word boundary
^the symbol '∅' represents zero or an absence of a phoneme.
^Ilocano syllables always begin with a consonant onset. Words that begin with a vowel actually begin with a glottal stop ('[ʔ]'), but it is not shown in the orthography. When the glottal stop occurs within a word there are two ways it is represented. When two vowels are juxtaposed, except certain vowel combinations beginning with /i/ or /u/ which in fact imply a glide /j/ or /w/, the glottal stop is implied. Examples: buokhair[buː.ʔok], daitsew[daː.ʔit], but notruaroutside[ɾwaɾ]. However, if the previous syllable is closed (ends in a consonant) and the following syllable begins with a glottal stop, a hyphen is used to represent it, for example lab-aybland[lab.ʔai].
^ abcdefgLetters in parentheses are orthographic conventions that are used.
^Spanish permits stress to fall on the antepenult. As a result, Ilokano will shift the stress to fall on the penult. For example, árabean Arab becomes arábo in Ilocano.
^Rubino, Carl (2005). Iloko. In Alexander Adelaar and Nikolaus Himmelmann (eds.), The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar: London & New York: Routledge. pp. 326–349.
^Gelade, George P. (1993). Ilokano English Dictionary.CICM Missionaries/Progressive Printing Palace, Quezon City, Philippines. 719pp.
^Vanoverbergh, Morice (1956). Iloko-English Dictionary:Rev. Andres Carro's Vocabulario Iloco-Español. Catholic School Press, Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Baguio, Philippines. 370pp.
The Online Ilokano Dictionary Project (TOIDP) – A free Ilokano dictionary application for people to utilize to overcome the language barriers existing between the English and Ilokano languages.
Tarabay iti Ortograpia ti Pagsasao nga Ilokano – A free ebook version of the Guide on the Orthography of the Ilokano Language developed by the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (KWF) in consultation with various stakeholders in Ilokano language and culture and developed back in 2012 as a resource material for the implementation of the Department of Education's K-12 curriculum with the integration of MTB-MLE or Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education.
Iluko.com popular Ilokano web portal featuring Ilokano songs, Iloko fiction and poetry, Ilokano riddles, and a lively Ilokano forum (Dap-ayan).
mannurat.com blog of an Ilokano fictionist and poet written in Iloko and featuring original and Iloko fiction and poetry, literary analysis and criticism focused on Ilokano Literature, and literary news about Iloko writing and writers and organization like the GUMIL (Gunglo dagiti Mannurat nga Ilokano).
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