The Ilokano people had their indigenous writing system and script known as kur-itan. There have been proposals to revive the kur-itan script by teaching it in Ilokano-majority public and private schools in Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur.[8]
Classification
Ilocano, like all Philippine languages, is an Austronesian language, a very expansive language family believed to originate in Taiwan.[9][10] Ilocano comprises its own branch within the Philippine Cordilleran language subfamily. It is spoken as a first language by seven million people.[3]
A lingua franca of Northern Luzon and many parts of Central Luzon, it is spoken as a secondary language by more than two million people who are native speakers of Ibanag, Ivatan, Pangasinan, Sambal, and other local languages.[2]
In September 2012, the province of La Union passed an ordinance recognizing Ilocano (Iloko) as an official provincial language, alongside Filipino, the national language, and English, a co-official language nationwide.[4] It is the first province in the Philippines to pass an ordinance protecting and revitalizing a native language, although there are other languages spoken in La Union, including Pangasinan, Kankanaey, and Ibaloi.[4]
Writing system
Our Father prayer from Doctrina Cristiana, 1621. Written in Ilocano using Baybayin script.
Modern alphabet
The modern Ilokano alphabet consists of 28 letters:[19]
Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Ññ, NGng, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, and Zz
Pre-colonial
Pre-colonial Ilocano people of all classes wrote in a syllabic system known as Baybayin prior to European arrival. They used a system that is termed as an abugida, or an alphasyllabary. It was similar to the Tagalog and Pangasinan scripts, where each character represented a consonant-vowel, or CV, sequence. The Ilocano version, however, was the first to designate coda consonants with a diacritic mark – a cross or virama – shown in the Doctrina Cristiana of 1621, one of the earliest surviving Ilokano publications. Before the addition of the virama, writers had no way to designate coda consonants. The reader, on the other hand, had to guess whether a consonant not succeeding a vowel is read or not, for it is not written. Vowel apostrophes interchange between e or i, and o or u. Due to this, the vowels e and i are interchangeable, and letters o and u, for instance, tendera and tindira ('shop-assistant').
Modern
Ilocano version of the Book of Mormon, written with the Tagalog system, as can be seen by the use of the letter K
In recent times, there have been two systems in use: the Spanish system and the Tagalog system. In the Spanish system words of Spanish origin kept their spellings. Native words, on the other hand, conformed to the Spanish rules of spelling. Most older generations of Ilocanos use the Spanish system.
In the system based on that of Tagalog there is more of a phoneme-to-letter correspondence, which better reflects the actual pronunciation of the word.[a] The letters ng constitute a digraph and count as a single letter, following n in alphabetization. As a result, numo ('humility') appears before ngalngal ('to chew') in newer dictionaries. Words of foreign origin, most notably those from Spanish, need to be changed in spelling to better reflect Ilocano phonology. Words of English origin may or may not conform to this orthography. A prime example using this system is the weekly magazine Bannawag.
Samples of the two systems
The following are two versions of the Lord's Prayer. The one on the left is written using Spanish-based orthography, while the one on the right uses the Tagalog-based system.
1. In Ilocano phonology, the labiodental fricative sound /f/ does not exist. Its approximate sound is /p/. Therefore, in words of Spanish or English origin, /f/ becomes /p/. In particular (yet not always the case), last names beginning with /f/ are often said with /p/, for example Fernández /per.'nan.des/.2. The sound /h/ only occurs in loanwords, and in the negative variant haan.
Ilocano and education
With the implementation by the Spanish of the Bilingual Education System of 1897, Ilocano, together with the other seven major languages (those that have at least a million speakers), was allowed to be used as a medium of instruction until the second grade. It is recognized by the Commission on the Filipino Language as one of the major languages of the Philippines.[20] Constitutionally, Ilocano is an auxiliary official language in the regions where it is spoken and serves as auxiliary media of instruction therein.[21]
In 2009, the Department of Education instituted Department Order No. 74, s. 2009 stipulating that "mother tongue-based multilingual education" would be implemented. In 2012, Department Order No. 16, s. 2012 stipulated that the mother tongue-based multilingual system was to be implemented for Kindergarten to Grade 3 Effective School Year 2012–2013.[22] Ilocano is used in public schools mostly in the Ilocos Region and the Cordilleras. It is the primary medium of instruction from Kindergarten to Grade 3 (except for the Filipino and English subjects) and is also a separate subject from Grade 1 to Grade 3. Thereafter, English and Filipino are introduced as mediums of instruction.
Ilocano animistic past offers a rich background in folklore, mythology and superstition (see Religion in the Philippines). There are many stories of good and malevolent spirits and beings. Its creation mythology centers on the giants Aran and her husband Angalo, and Namarsua (the Creator).
The epic story Biag ni Lam-ang (The Life of Lam-ang) is undoubtedly one of the few indigenous stories from the Philippines that survived colonialism, although much of it is now acculturated and shows many foreign elements in the retelling. It reflects values important to traditional Ilokano society; it is a hero's journey steeped in courage, loyalty, pragmatism, honor, and ancestral and familial bonds.
Ilocano culture revolves around life rituals, festivities, and oral history. These were celebrated in songs (kankanta), dances (salsala), poems (dandaniw), riddles (burburtia), proverbs (pagsasao), literary verbal jousts called bucanegan (named after the writer Pedro Bucaneg, and is the equivalent of the Balagtasan of the Tagalogs), and epic stories.
Phonology
Segmental
Vowels
Modern Ilocano has two dialects, which are differentiated only by the way the letter e is pronounced. In the Amianan (Northern) dialect, there exist only five vowels while the older Abagatan (Southern) dialect employs six.
Amianan: /a/, /i/, /u/, /ɛ~e/, /o/
Abagatan: /a/, /i/, /u/, /ɛ~e/, /o/, /ɯ/
Reduplicate vowels are not slurred together, but voiced separately with an intervening glottal stop:
saan: /sa.ʔan/ 'no'
siit: /si.ʔit/ 'thorn'
The letter in bold is the graphic (written) representation of the vowel.
For a better rendition of vowel distribution, please refer to the IPA Vowel Chart.
Unstressed /a/ is pronounced [ɐ] in all positions except final syllables, like madí[mɐˈdi] ('cannot be') but ngiwat ('mouth') is pronounced [ˈŋiwat]. Unstressed /a/ in final-syllables is mostly pronounced [ɐ] across word boundaries.
Although the modern (Tagalog) writing system is largely phonetic, there are some notable conventions.
O/U and I/E
In native morphemes, the close back rounded vowel/u/ is written differently depending on the syllable. If the vowel occurs in the ultima of the morpheme, it is written o; elsewhere, u.
Instances such as masapulmonto, 'You will manage to find it, to need it', are still consistent. Note that masapulmonto is, in fact, three morphemes: masapul (verb base), -mo (pronoun) and -(n)to (future particle). An exception to this rule, however, is laud/la.ʔud/ ('west'). Also, u in final stressed syllables can be pronounced [o], like [dɐ.ˈnom] for danum ('water').
The two vowels are not highly differentiated in native words due to fact that /o/ was an allophone of /u/ in the history of the language. In words of foreign origin, notably Spanish, they are phonemic.
Example:uso 'use'; oso 'bear'
Unlike u and o, i and e are not allophones, but i in final stressed syllables in words ending in consonants can be [ɛ], like ubíng[ʊ.ˈbɛŋ] ('child').
Unstressed /i/ and /u/ are pronounced [ɪ] and [ʊ] except in final syllables, like pintás ('beauty') [pɪn.ˈtas] and buténg ('fear') [bʊ.ˈtɛŋ,bʊ.ˈtɯŋ] but bangir ('other side') and parabur ('grace/blessing') are pronounced [ˈba.ŋiɾ] and [pɐ.ˈɾa.buɾ]. Unstressed /i/ and /u/ in final syllables are mostly pronounced [ɪ] and [ʊ] across word boundaries.
Pronunciation of ⟨e⟩
The letter ⟨e⟩ represents two vowels in the non-nuclear dialects (areas outside the Ilocos provinces) [ɛ~e] in words of foreign origin and [ɯ] in native words, and only one in the nuclear dialects of the Ilocos provinces, [ɛ~e].
Realization of ⟨e⟩
Word
Gloss
Origin
Nuclear
Non-nuclear
keddeng
'assign'
Native
[kɛd.dɛŋ,ked.deŋ]
[kɯd.dɯŋ]
elepante
'elephant'
Spanish
[ʔɛ.lɛ.pan.tɛ,ʔe.le.pan.te]
Diphthongs
Diphthongs are combination of a vowel and /i/ or /u/. In the orthography, the secondary vowels (underlying /i/ or /u/) are written with their corresponding glide, y or w, respectively. Of all the possible combinations, only /aj/ or /ej/, /iw/, /aw/ and /uj/ occur. In the orthography, vowels in sequence such as uo and ai, do not coalesce into a diphthong, rather, they are pronounced with an intervening glottal stop, for example, buok 'hair' /bʊ.ʔok/ and dait 'sew' /da.ʔit/.
Diphthongs
Diphthong
Orthography
Example
/au/
aw (for native words) / au (for spanish loanwords)
kabaw 'senile', autoridad ‘authority’
/iu/
iw
iliw 'home sick'
/ai/
ay (for native words) / ai (for spanish loanwords)
The diphthong /ei/ is a variant of /ai/ in native words. Other occurrences are in words of Spanish and English origin. Examples are reyna/ˈɾei.na/ (from Spanish reina, 'queen') and treyner/ˈtɾei.nɛɾ/ ('trainer'). The diphthongs /oi/ and /ui/ may be interchanged since /o/ is an allophone of /u/ in final syllables. Thus, apúy ('fire') may be pronounced /ɐ.ˈpoi/ and baboy ('pig') may be pronounced /ˈba.bui/.
As for the diphthong /au/, the general rule is to use /aw/ for native words while /au/ will be used for spanish loanword such as the words ’’autoridad, autonomia, automatiko’’. The same rule goes to the diphthong /ai/.
All consonantal phonemes except /h,ʔ/ may be a syllable onset or coda. The phoneme /h/ is a borrowed sound (except in the negative variant haan) and rarely occurs in coda position. Although the Spanish word reloj 'clock' would have been heard as [re.loh], the final /h/ is dropped resulting in /re.lo/. However, this word also may have entered the Ilokano lexicon at early enough a time that the word was still pronounced /re.loʒ/, with the j pronounced as in French, resulting in /re.los/ in Ilokano. As a result, both /re.lo/ and /re.los/ occur.
The glottal stop /ʔ/ is not permissible as coda; it can only occur as onset. Even as an onset, the glottal stop disappears in affixation. Take, for example, the root aramat[ʔɐ.ɾa.mat], 'use'. When prefixed with ag-, the expected form is *[ʔɐɡ.ʔɐ.ɾa.mat]. But, the actual form is [ʔɐ.ɡɐ.ɾa.mat]; the glottal stop disappears. In a reduplicated form, the glottal stop returns and participates in the template, CVC, agar-aramat[ʔɐ.ɡaɾ.ʔɐ.ɾa.mat]. Glottal stop /ʔ/sometimes occurs non-phonemically in coda in words ending in vowels, but only before a pause.
Stops are pronounced without aspiration. When they occur as coda, they are not released, for example, sungbat[sʊŋ.bat̚] 'answer', 'response'.
Ilokano is one of the Philippine languages which is excluded from [ɾ]-[d] allophony, as /r/ in many cases is derived from a Proto-Austronesian *R; compare bago (Tagalog) and baró (Ilokano) 'new'.
The language marginally has a trill [r] which is spelled as rr, for example, serrek[sɯ.ˈrɯk] 'to enter'. Trill [r] is sometimes an allophone of [ɾ] in word-initial position, syllable-final, and word-final positions, spelled as single ⟨r⟩, for example, ruar 'outside' [ɾwaɾ] ~ [rwar]. It is only pronounced flap [ɾ] in affixation and across word boundaries, especially when vowel-ending word precedes word-initial ⟨r⟩. But it is different in proper names of foreign origin, mostly Spanish, like Serrano, which is correctly pronounced [sɛ.ˈrano]. Some speakers, however, pronounce Serrano as [sɛ.ˈɾano].
Prosody
Primary stress
The placement of primary stress is lexical in Ilocano. This results in minimal pairs such as /ˈkaː.jo/ ('wood') and /ka.ˈjo/ ('you' (plural or polite)) or /ˈkiː.ta/ ('class, type, kind') and /ki.ˈta/ ('see'). In written Ilokano the reader must rely on context, thus ⟨kayo⟩ and ⟨kita⟩. Primary stress can fall only on either the penult or the ultima of the root, as seen in the previous examples.
While stress is unpredictable in Ilokano, there are notable patterns that can determine where stress will fall depending on the structures of the penult, the ultima and the origin of the word.[2]
Foreign words – the stress of foreign (mostly Spanish) words adopted into Ilokano fall on the same syllable as the original.[h]
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
doktór
doctor
Spanish origin
agmaného
(to) drive
Spanish origin ('I drive')
agrekórd
(to) record
English origin (verb)
agtárget
to target
English origin (verb)
CVC.'CV(C)#but 'CVŋ.kV(C)# – in words with a closed penult, stress falls on the ultima, except for instances of /-ŋ.k-/ where it is the penult.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
addá
there is/are
Closed penult
takkí
feces
Closed penult
bibíngka
(a type of delicacy)
-ŋ.k sequence
'C(j/w)V# – in words whose ultima is a glide plus a vowel, stress falls on the ultima.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
al-aliá
ghost
Consonant–glide–vowel
ibiáng
to involve (someone or something)
Consonant–glide–vowel
ressuát
creation
Consonant–glide–vowel
C.'CV:.ʔVC# – in words where VʔV and V is the same vowel for the penult and ultima, the stress falls on the penult.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
buggúong
fermented fish or shrimp paste
Vowel–glottal–vowel
máag
idiot
Vowel–glottal–vowel
síit
thorn, spine, fish bone
Vowel–glottal–vowel
Secondary stress
Secondary stress occurs in the following environments:
Syllables whose coda is the onset of the next, i.e., the syllable before a geminate.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
pànnakakíta
ability to see
Syllable before geminate
kèddéng
judgement, decision
Syllable before geminate
ùbbíng
children
Syllable before geminate
Reduplicated consonant-vowel sequence resulting from morphology or lexicon.
Ilocano
Gloss
Comment
agsàsaó
speaks, is speaking
Reduplicate CV
àl-aliá
ghost, spirit
Reduplicate CV
agdàdáit
sews, is sewing
Reduplicate CV
Vowel length
Vowel length coincides with stressed syllables (primary or secondary) and only on open syllables except for ultimas, for example, /'ka:.jo/ 'tree' versus /ka.'jo/ (second person plural ergative pronoun).
Stress shift
As primary stress can fall only on the penult or the ultima, suffixation causes a shift in stress one syllable to the right. The vowel of open penults that result lengthen as a consequence.
Stem
Suffix
Result
Gloss
/ˈpuː.dut/ (heat)
/-ɯn/ (Goal focus)
/pu.ˈduː.tɯn/
to warm/heat (something)
/da.ˈlus/ (clean)
/-an/ (Directional focus)
/da.lu.ˈsan/
to clean (something)
Grammar
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)
Ilocano is typified by a predicate-initial structure. Verbs and adjectives occur in the first position of the sentence, then the rest of the sentence follows.
Ilocano uses a highly complex list of affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes and enclitics) and reduplications to indicate a wide array of grammatical categories. Learning simple root words and corresponding affixes goes a long way in forming cohesive sentences.[24]
Ilocano uses two number systems, one native and the other derived from Spanish.
Numbers
0
ibbong awan (lit. 'none')
sero
0.25 (1/4)
pagkapat
kuarto
0.50 (1/2)
kagudua
mitad
1
maysa
uno
2
dua
dos
3
tallo
tres
4
uppat
kuatro
5
lima
singko
6
innem
sais
7
pito
siete
8
walo
otso
9
siam
nuebe
10
sangapulo (lit. 'a group of ten')
dies
11
sangapulo ket maysa, sangapulo't maysa
onse
12
sangapulo ket dua, sangapulo't dua
dose
20
duapulo
bainte, beinte
30
tallopulo
treinta, trenta
50
limapulo
singkuenta
100
sangagasut (lit. 'a group of one hundred')
sien, siento
1,000
sangaribo (lit. 'a group of one thousand'), ribo
mil
10,000
sangalaksa (lit. 'a group of ten thousand'), sangapulo nga ribo
dies mil
1,000,000
sangariwriw (lit. 'a group of one million')
milion
1,000,000,000
sangabilion (American English, 'billion')
bilion (US-influenced), mil miliones
Ilocano uses a mixture of native and Spanish numbers. Traditionally Ilocano numbers are used for quantities and Spanish numbers for time or days and references.
Examples:
Spanish:
Mano ti tawenmo?
'How old are you (in years)?' (Lit. 'How many years do you have?')
Baintiuno.
'Twenty one.'
Luktanyo dagiti Bibliayo iti libro ni Juan kapitulo tres bersikolo diesiseis.
'Open your Bibles to the book of John chapter three verse sixteen.'
Ilocano:
Mano a kilo ti bagas ti kayatmo?
'How many kilos of rice do you want?'
Sangapulo laeng.
'Ten only.'
Adda dua nga ikanna.
'He has two fish.' (lit. 'There are two fish with him.')
Days of the week
Days of the week are directly borrowed from Spanish.
Days of the Week
Monday
Lunes
Tuesday
Martes
Wednesday
Mierkoles
Thursday
Huebes
Friday
Biernes
Saturday
Sabado
Sunday
Dominggo
Months
Like the days of the week, the names of the months are taken from Spanish.
Months
January
Enero
July
Hulio
February
Pebrero
August
Agosto
March
Marso
September
Septiembre
April
Abril
October
Oktubre
May
Mayo
November
Nobiembre
June
Hunio
December
Disiembre
Units of time
The names of the units of time are either native or are derived from Spanish. The first entries in the following table are native; the second entries are Spanish derived.
Units of time
second
kanito segundo
minute
daras minuto
hour
oras
day
aldaw
week
lawas dominggo (lit. 'Sunday'), semana (rare)
month
bulan
year
tawen anio
To mention time, Ilocanos use a mixture of Spanish and Ilocano:
1:00 a.m. A la una iti bigat (one in the morning)
2:30 p.m. A las dos y media iti malem, in Spanish: A las dos y media de la tarde (half past two in the afternoon)
6:00 p.m A las sais iti sardang (six in the evening)
7:00 p.m A las siete iti rabii (seven in the evening)
12:00 noon A las dose iti pangaldaw (twelve noon)
More Ilocano words
Note: adjacent vowels are pronounced separately, and are not slurred together, as in ba-ak, or in la-ing[citation needed]
abay = beside; wedding party
abalayan = parents-in-law
adal = study (Southern dialect)
adayu = far
adda = affirming the presence or existence of a person, place, or object
ading = younger sibling; can also be applied to someone who is younger than the speaker
adipen = slave
ala = to take
ammo = know
anus = perseverance, patience (depends on the usage)
ania/inia = what
apan = go; to go
apa = fight, argument; ice cream cone
apay = why
apong = grandparent
apong baket/lilang/lola = grandmother
apong lakay/lilong/lolo = grandfather
aramid = build, work (Southern dialect)
aruangan/ruangan = door
asideg = near
atiddug = long
awan = none / nothing
awan te remedio? = there is no cure?
ay naku! = oh my goodness!
ay sus!/Ay Apo! = oh, Jesus/oh, my God!
baak = ancient; old
bado = clothes; outfit; shirt
bagi = one's body; ownership
balitok = gold
balong = same as baro
bangles = spoiled food
(i/bag)baga = (to) tell/speak
bagtit/mauyong = crazy/bad word in Ilokano,[clarification needed] drunk person, meager
baket = old woman
balasang = young female/lass
balatong = mung beans
balay = house
balong = infant/child
bangsit = stink/unpleasant/spoiled
baro = young male/lad
basa = study (Northern dialect); read (Southern dialect)
^However, there are notable exceptions. The reverse is true for the vowel /u/ where it has two representations in native words. The vowel /u/ is written o when it appears in the last syllable of the word or of the root, for example kitaemonto /ki.ta.e.mun.tu/. In addition, e represents two vowels in the southern dialect: [ɛ] and [ɯ].
^The '#' represents the start of the word boundary
^the symbol '∅' represents zero or an absence of a phoneme.
^Ilocano syllables always begin with a consonant onset. Words that begin with a vowel actually begin with a glottal stop ('[ʔ]'), but it is not shown in the orthography. When the glottal stop occurs within a word there are two ways it is represented. When two vowels are juxtaposed, except certain vowel combinations beginning with /i/ or /u/ which in fact imply a glide /j/ or /w/, the glottal stop is implied. Examples: buokhair[buː.ʔok], daitsew[daː.ʔit], but notruaroutside[ɾwaɾ]. However, if the previous syllable is closed (ends in a consonant) and the following syllable begins with a glottal stop, a hyphen is used to represent it, for example lab-aybland[lab.ʔai].
^ abcdefgLetters in parentheses are orthographic conventions that are used.
^Spanish permits stress to fall on the antepenult. As a result, Ilokano will shift the stress to fall on the penult. For example, árabean Arab becomes arábo in Ilocano.
^Rubino, Carl (2005). Iloko. In Alexander Adelaar and Nikolaus Himmelmann (eds.), The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar: London & New York: Routledge. pp. 326–349.
^Gelade, George P. (1993). Ilokano English Dictionary.CICM Missionaries/Progressive Printing Palace, Quezon City, Philippines. 719pp.
^Vanoverbergh, Morice (1956). Iloko-English Dictionary:Rev. Andres Carro's Vocabulario Iloco-Español. Catholic School Press, Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, Baguio, Philippines. 370pp.
The Online Ilokano Dictionary Project (TOIDP) – A free Ilokano dictionary application for people to utilize so that they may overcome the language barriers existing between the English and Ilokano languages.
Tarabay iti Ortograpia ti Pagsasao nga Ilokano – A free ebook version of the Guide on the Orthography of the Ilokano Language developed by the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino (KWF) in consultation with various stakeholders in Ilokano language and culture. Developed back in 2012 as a resource material for the implementation of the Department of Education's K-12 curriculum with the integration of MTB-MLE or Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education.
Iluko.com popular Ilokano web portal featuring Ilokano songs, Iloko fiction and poetry, Ilokano riddles, and a lively Ilokano forum (Dap-ayan).
mannurat.com blog of an Ilokano fictionist and poet written in Iloko and featuring original and Iloko fiction and poetry, literary analysis and criticism focused on Ilokano Literature, and literary news about Iloko writing and writers and organization like the GUMIL (Gunglo dagiti Mannurat nga Ilokano).
samtoy.blogspot.com Yloco Blog maintained by Ilokano writers Raymundo Pascua Addun and Joel Manuel
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