French phonology is the sound system of French. This article discusses mainly the phonology of all the varieties of Standard French. Notable phonological features include its uvular r, nasal vowels, and three processes affecting word-final sounds:
liaison, a specific instance of sandhi in which word-final consonants are not pronounced unless they are followed by a word beginning with a vowel;
elision, in which certain instances of /ə/ (schwa) are elided (such as when final before an initial vowel);
enchaînement (resyllabification) in which word-final and word-initial consonants may be moved across a syllable boundary, with syllables crossing word boundaries:
Distribution of guttural r (such as [ʁʀχ]) in Europe in the mid-20th century.[1]
not usual
only in some educated speech
usual in educated speech
general
Phonetic notes:
/n,t,d/ are laminaldenti-alveolar[n̪,t̪,d̪],[2][3] while /s,z/ are dentalised laminal alveolar [s̪,z̪] (commonly called 'dental'), pronounced with the blade of the tongue very close to the back of the upper front teeth, with the tip resting behind lower front teeth.[2][4]
Word-final consonants are always released. Generally, /b,d,ɡ/ are voiced throughout and /p,t,k/ are unaspirated.[5]
/l/ is usually apical alveolar [l̺] but sometimes laminal denti-alveolar [l̪].[3] Before /f,ʒ/, it can be realised as retroflex[ɭ].[3]
In current pronunciation, /ɲ/ is merging with /nj/.[6]
The velar nasal/ŋ/ is not a native phoneme of French, but it occurs in loan words such as camping, smoking or kung-fu.[7] Some speakers who have difficulty with this consonant realise it as a sequence [ŋɡ] or replace it with /ɲ/.[8] It could be considered a separate phoneme in Meridional French, e.g. pain /pɛŋ/ ('bread') vs. penne /pɛn/ ('quill').
The approximants /j,ɥ,w/ correspond to the close vowels /i,y,u/. While there are a few minimal pairs (such as loua/lu.a/ 's/he rented' and loi/lwa/ 'law'), there are many cases where there is free variation.[5]
Belgian French may merge /ɥ/ with /w/ or /y/.[citation needed]
Some dialects of French have a palatal lateral /ʎ/ (French: l mouillé, 'wet l'), but in the modern standard variety, it has merged with /j/.[9][10] See also Glides and diphthongs, below.
The French rhotic has a wide range of realizations: the voiced uvular fricative[ʁ], also realised as an approximant[ʁ̞], with a voiceless positional allophone [χ], the uvular trill[ʀ], the alveolar trill[r], and the alveolar tap[ɾ]. These are all recognised as the phoneme/r/,[5] but [r] and [ɾ] are considered dialectal. The most common pronunciation is [ʁ] as a default realisation, complemented by a devoiced variant [χ] in the positions before or after a voiceless obstruent or at the end of a sentence. See French guttural r and map at right.
Velars /k/ and /ɡ/ may become palatalised to [kʲ⁓c] and [ɡʲ⁓ɟ] before /i,e,ɛ/, and more variably before /a/.[11] Word-final /k/ may also be palatalised to [kʲ].[12] Velar palatalisation has traditionally been associated with the working class,[13] though recent studies suggest it is spreading to more demographics of large French cities.[12]
Although double consonant letters appear in the orthographic form of many French words, geminate consonants are relatively rare in the pronunciation of such words. The following cases can be identified.[15]
The geminate pronunciation [ʁʁ] is found in the future and conditional forms of the verbs courir ('to run') and mourir ('to die'). The conditional form il mourrait[il.muʁ.ʁɛ] ('he would die'), for example, contrasts with the imperfect form il mourait[il.mu.ʁɛ] ('he was dying'). In some other words, most modern speakers have reduced [ʁʁ] to [ʁ], such as "il pourrait" ('he could'). Other verbs that have a double ⟨rr⟩ orthographically in the future and conditional are pronounced with a simple [ʁ]: il pourra ('he will be able to'), il verra ('he will see').
When the prefix in- combines with a base that begins with n, the resulting word is sometimes pronounced with a geminate [nn] and similarly for the variants of the same prefix im-, il-, ir-:
Other cases of optional gemination can be found in words like syllabe ('syllable'), grammaire ('grammar'), and illusion ('illusion'). The pronunciation of such words, in many cases, a spelling pronunciation varies by speaker and gives rise to widely varying stylistic effects.[16] In particular, the gemination of consonants other than the liquids and nasals /mnlʁ/ is "generally considered affected or pedantic".[17] Examples of stylistically marked pronunciations include addition[ad.di.sjɔ̃] ('addition') and intelligence[ɛ̃.tɛl.li.ʒɑ̃s] ('intelligence').
Gemination of doubled ⟨m⟩ and ⟨n⟩ is typical of the Languedoc region, as opposed to other southern accents.
A few cases of gemination do not correspond to double consonant letters in the orthography.[18] The deletion of word-internal schwas (see below), for example, can give rise to sequences of identical consonants: là-dedans[lad.dɑ̃] ('inside'), l'honnêteté[lɔ.nɛt.te] ('honesty'). The elided form of the object pronoun l' ('him/her/it') is also realised as a geminate [ll] when it appears after another l to avoid misunderstanding:
Il l'a mangé[il.lamɑ̃.ʒe] ('He ate it')
Il a mangé[il.amɑ̃.ʒe] ('He ate')
Gemination is obligatory in such contexts.
Finally, a word pronounced with emphatic stress can exhibit gemination of its first syllable-initial consonant:
Many words in French can be analyzed as having a "latent" final consonant that is pronounced only in certain syntactic contexts when the next word begins with a vowel. For example, the word deux/dø/ ('two') is pronounced [dø] in isolation or before a consonant-initial word (deux jours/døʒuʁ/ → [dø.ʒuʁ] 'two days'), but in deux ans/døz‿ɑ̃/ (→ [dø.zɑ̃] 'two years'), the linking or liaison consonant /z/ is pronounced.
Vowels
Vowels of Parisian French, from Collins & Mees (2013:225–226). Some speakers merge /œ̃/ with /ɛ̃/ (especially in the northern half of France) and /a/ with /ɑ/. In the latter case, the outcome is an open central [ä] between the two (not shown on the chart).
Standard French contrasts up to 13 oral vowels and up to 4 nasal vowels. The schwa (in the center of the diagram next to this paragraph) is not necessarily a distinctive sound. Even though it often merges with one of the mid front rounded vowels, its patterning suggests that it is a separate phoneme (see the subsection Schwa below).
The table below primarily lists vowels in contemporary Parisian French, with vowels only present in other dialects in parentheses.
While some dialects feature a long /ɛː/ distinct from /ɛ/ and a distinction between an open front /a/ and an open back /ɑ/, Parisian French features only /ɛ/ and just one open vowel /a/ realised as central [ä]. Some dialects also feature a rounded /œ̃/, which has merged with /ɛ̃/ in Paris.
In Metropolitan French, while /ə/ is phonologically distinct, its phonetic quality tends to coincide with either /ø/ or /œ/.
In contrast with the mid vowels, there is no tense–lax contrast in close vowels. However, non-phonemic lax (near-close) [ɪ,ʏ,ʊ] appear in Quebec as allophones of /i,y,u/ when the vowel is both phonetically short (so not before /v,z,ʒ,ʁ/) and in a closed syllable, so that e.g. petite[pə.t͡sɪt] 'small (f.)' differs from petit 'small (m.)' [pə.t͡si] not only in the presence of the final /t/ but also in the tenseness of the /i/. Laxing always occurs in stressed closed syllables, but it is also found in other environments to various degrees.[20][21]
In Metropolitan French, /i,u/ are consistently close [i,u],[22][23][24] but the exact height of /y/ is somewhat debatable as it has been variously described as close [y][22][23] and near-close [ʏ].[24]
Mid vowels
Although the mid vowels contrast in certain environments, there is a limited distributional overlap so they often appear in complementary distribution. Generally, close-mid vowels (/e,ø,o/) are found in open syllables, and open-mid vowels (/ɛ,œ,ɔ/) are found in closed syllables. However, there are minimal pairs:[22]
open-mid /ɛ/ and close-mid /e/ contrast in final-position open syllables:
allait[a.lɛ] ('was going'), vs. allé[a.le] ('gone');
likewise, open-mid /ɔ/ and /œ/ contrast with close-mid /o/ and /ø/ mostly in closed monosyllables, such as these:
jeune[ʒœn] ('young'), vs. jeûne[ʒøn] ('fast', verb),
Rhodes[ʁɔd] ('Rhodes'), vs. rôde[ʁod] ('[I] lurk'),
Paul[pɔl] ('Paul', masculine), vs. Paule[pol] ('Paule', feminine),
bonne[bɔn] ('good', feminine), vs. Beaune[bon] ('Beaune', the city).
Beyond the general rule, known as the loi de position among French phonologists,[25] there are some exceptions. For instance, /o/ and /ø/ are found in closed syllables ending in [z], and only [ɔ] is found in closed monosyllables before [ʁ], [ɲ], and [ɡ].[26]
The Parisian realization of /ɔ/ has been variously described as central [ɞ][24] and centralized to [ɞ] before /ʁ/,[2] in both cases becoming similar to /œ/.
The phonemic opposition of /ɛ/ and /e/ has been lost in the southern half of France, where these two sounds are found only in complementary distribution. The phonemic oppositions of /ɔ/ and /o/ and of /œ/ and /ø/ in terminal open syllables have been lost in almost all of France, but not in Belgium or in areas with an Arpitan substrate, where pot and peau are still opposed as /pɔ/ and /po/.[27]
Open vowels
The phonemic contrast between front /a/ and back /ɑ/ is sometimes no longer maintained in Parisian French, which leads some researchers to reject the idea of two distinct phonemes.[28] However, the back [ɑ] is always maintained in Northern French, but only in final open syllables,[29]avocat (lawyer) [avoˈkɑ]ⓘ, but in final closed syllables, the /ɑ/ phoneme is fronted to [aː], but it is always long, pâte (pasta) [paːt]. The distinction is still clearly maintained in many dialects such as Quebec French.[30]
While there is much variation among speakers in France, a number of general tendencies can be observed. First of all, the distinction is most often preserved in word-final stressed syllables such as in these minimal pairs:
tache/taʃ/ → [taʃ] ('stain'), vs. tâche/tɑʃ/ → [tɑʃ] ('task')
patte/pat/ → [pat] ('leg'), vs. pâte/pɑt/ → [pɑt] ('paste, pastry')
rat/ʁa/ → [ʁa] ('rat'), vs. ras/ʁɑ/ → [ʁɑ] ('short')
There are certain environments that prefer one open vowel over the other. For example, /ɑ/ is preferred after /ʁw/ and before /z/:
The difference in quality is often reinforced by a difference in length (but the difference is contrastive in final closed syllables). The exact distribution of the two vowels varies greatly from speaker to speaker.[32]
Back /ɑ/ is much rarer in unstressed syllables, but it can be encountered in some common words:
rarissime/ʁaʁisim/ → [ʁaʁisim] ('very rare', from rare/ʁɑʁ/ → [ʁɑʁ]).
Even in the final syllable of a word, back /ɑ/ may become [a] if the word in question loses its stress within the extended phonological context:[31]
J'ai été au bois/ʒeeteobwɑ/ → [ʒe.e.te.o.bwɑ] ('I went to the woods'),
J'ai été au bois de Vincennes/ʒeeteobwɑdəvɛ̃sɛn/ → [ʒe.e.te.o.bwad.vɛ̃.sɛn] ('I went to the Vincennes woods').
Nasal vowels
The phonetic qualities of the back nasal vowels differ from those of the corresponding oral vowels. The contrasting factor that distinguishes /ɑ̃/ and /ɔ̃/ is the extra lip rounding of the latter according to some linguists,[33] and tongue height according to others.[34] Speakers who produce both /œ̃/ and /ɛ̃/ distinguish them mainly through increased lip rounding of the former, but many speakers use only the latter phoneme, especially most speakers in northern France such as Paris (but not farther north, in Belgium).[33][34]
In some dialects, particularly that of Europe, there is an attested tendency for nasal vowels to shift in a counterclockwise direction: /ɛ̃/ tends to be more open and shifts toward the vowel space of /ɑ̃/ (realised also as [æ̃]), /ɑ̃/ rises and rounds to [ɔ̃] (realised also as [ɒ̃]) and /ɔ̃/ shifts to [õ] or [ũ]. Also, there also is an opposite movement for /ɔ̃/ for which it becomes more open and unrounds to [ɑ̃], resulting in a merger of Standard French /ɔ̃/ and /ɑ̃/ in this case.[34][35] According to one source, the typical phonetic realization of the nasal vowels in Paris is [æ̃] for /ɛ̃/, [ɑ̃] for /ɑ̃/ and [õ̞] for /ɔ̃/, suggesting that the first two are unrounded open vowels that contrast by backness (like the oral /a/ and /ɑ/ in some accents), whereas /ɔ̃/ is much closer than /ɛ̃/.[36]
In Quebec French, two of the vowels shift in a different direction: /ɔ̃/ → [õ], more or less as in Europe, but /ɛ̃/ → [ẽ] and /ɑ̃/ → [ã].[37]
In the Provence and Occitanie regions, nasal vowels are often realized as oral vowels before a stop consonant, thus reviving the ⟨n⟩ otherwise lost in other accents: quarante /kaʁɑ̃t/ → [kaˈʁantə].
Contrary to the oral /ɔ/, there is no attested tendency for the nasal /ɔ̃/ to become central in any accent.
Schwa
When phonetically realised, schwa (/ə/), also called e caduc ('dropped e') and e muet ('mute e'), is a mid-central vowel with some rounding.[22] Many authors consider its value to be [œ],[38][39] while Geoff Lindsey suggests [ɵ].[40][41]Fagyal, Kibbee & Jenkins (2006) state, more specifically, that it merges with /ø/ before high vowels and glides:
and that it merges with /œ/ elsewhere.[42] However, some speakers make a clear distinction, and it exhibits special phonological behavior that warrants considering it a distinct phoneme. Furthermore, the merger occurs mainly in the French of France; in Quebec, /ø/ and /ə/ are still distinguished.[43]
The main characteristic of French schwa is its "instability": the fact that under certain conditions it has no phonetic realization.
That is usually the case when it follows a single consonant in a medial syllable:
Word-final schwas are optionally pronounced if preceded by two or more consonants and followed by a consonant-initial word:
une porte fermée/yn(ə)pɔʁt(ə)fɛʁme/ → [yn.pɔʁ.t(ə).fɛʁ.me] ('a closed door').
In the future and conditional forms of -er verbs, however, the schwa is sometimes deleted even after two consonants [citation needed]:
tu garderais/tyɡaʁdəʁɛ/ → [ty.ɡaʁ.d(ə.)ʁɛ] ('you would guard'),
nous brusquerons [les choses]/nubʁyskəʁɔ̃/ → [nu.bʁys.k(ə.)ʁɔ̃] ('we will precipitate [things]').
On the other hand, it is pronounced word-internally when it follows more pronounced consonants that cannot be combined into a complex onset with the initial consonants of the next syllable:
sept petits/sɛtpəti/ → [sɛt.pə.ti] ('seven little ones').[44]
In French versification, word-final schwa is always elided before another vowel and at the ends of verses. It is pronounced before a following consonant-initial word.[45] For example, une grande femme fut ici, [ynɡʁɑ̃dfamfy.t‿i.si] in ordinary speech, would in verse be pronounced [y.nəɡʁɑ̃.dəfa.məfy.t‿i.si], with the /ə/ enunciated at the end of each word.
Schwa cannot normally be realised as a front vowel ([œ]) in closed syllables. In such contexts in inflectional and derivational morphology, schwa usually alternates with the front vowel /ɛ/:
appellation/apelasjɔ̃/ → [a.pe.la.sjɔ̃] ('brand'), which can also be pronounced [a.pɛ.la.sjɔ̃].[47]
Instances of orthographic ⟨e⟩ that do not exhibit the behaviour described above may be better analysed as corresponding to the stable, full vowel /œ/. The enclitic pronoun le, for example, always keeps its vowel in contexts like donnez-le-moi/dɔneləmwa/ → [dɔ.ne.lœ.mwa] ('give it to me') for which schwa deletion would normally apply (giving *[dɔ.nɛl.mwa]), and it counts as a full syllable for the determination of stress.
Cases of word-internal stable ⟨e⟩ are more subject to variation among speakers, but, for example, un rebelle/œ̃ʁəbɛl/ ('a rebel') must be pronounced with a full vowel in contrast to un rebond/œ̃ʁəbɔ̃/ → or [œ̃ʁ.bɔ̃] ('a bounce').[48]
Length
Except for the distinction still made by some speakers between /ɛ/ and /ɛː/ in rare minimal pairs like mettre[mɛtʁ] ('to put') vs. maître[mɛːtʁ] ('teacher'), variation in vowel length is entirely allophonic. Vowels can be lengthened in closed, stressed syllables, under the following two conditions:
/o/, /ø/, /ɑ/, and the nasal vowels are lengthened before any consonant: pâte[pɑːt] ('dough'), chante[ʃɑ̃ːt] ('sings').
All vowels are lengthened if followed by one of the voiced fricatives—/v/, /z/, /ʒ/, /ʁ/ (not in combination)—or by the cluster /vʁ/: mer/mère[mɛːʁ] ('sea/mother'), crise[kʁiːz] ('crisis'), livre[liːvʁ] ('book'),[49]Tranel (1987:49–51) However, words such as (ils) servent[sɛʁv] ('(they) serve') or tarte[taʁt] ('pie') are pronounced with short vowels since the /ʁ/ appears in clusters other than /vʁ/.
When such syllables lose their stress, the lengthening effect may be absent. The vowel [o] of saute is long in Regarde comme elle saute !, in which the word is phrase-final and therefore stressed, but not in Qu'est-ce qu'elle saute bien ![50] In accents wherein /ɛː/ is distinguished from /ɛ/, however, it is still pronounced with a long vowel even in an unstressed position, as in fête in C'est une fête importante.[50]
The following table presents the pronunciation of a representative sample of words in phrase-final (stressed) position:
In Parisian French, the close vowels /i,y,u/ and the mid front /e,ɛ/ at the end of utterances can be devoiced. A devoiced vowel may be followed by a sound similar to the voiceless palatal fricative[ç]:
The final vowel (usually /ə/) of a number of monosyllabic function words is elided in syntactic combinations with a following word that begins with a vowel. For example, compare the pronunciation of the unstressed subject pronoun, in je dors/ʒədɔʁ/[ʒə.dɔʁ] ('I am sleeping'), and in j'arrive/ʒ‿aʁiv/[ʒa.ʁiv] ('I am arriving').
Glides and diphthongs
The glides [j], [w], and [ɥ] appear in syllable onsets immediately followed by a full vowel. In many cases, they alternate systematically with their vowel counterparts [i], [u], and [y] such as in the following pairs of verb forms:
The glides in the examples can be analyzed as the result of a glide formation process that turns an underlying high vowel into a glide when followed by another vowel: /nie/ → [nje].
This process is usually blocked after a complex onset of the form obstruent + liquid (a stop or a fricative followed by /l/ or /ʁ/). For example, while the pair loue/louer shows an alternation between [u] and [w], the same suffix added to cloue[klu], a word with a complex onset, does not trigger the glide formation: clouer[klu.e] ('to nail'). Some sequences of glide + vowel can be found after obstruent-liquid onsets, however. The main examples are [ɥi], as in pluie[plɥi] ('rain'), [wa], as in proie[pʁwa] ('prey'), and [wɛ̃], as in groin[ɡʁwɛ̃] ('snout').[54] They can be dealt with in different ways, as by adding appropriate contextual conditions to the glide formation rule or by assuming that the phonemic inventory of French includes underlying glides or rising diphthongs like /ɥi/ and /wa/.[55][56]
Glide formation normally does not occur across morpheme boundaries in compounds like semi-aride ('semi-arid').[57] However, in colloquial registers, si elle[si.ɛl] ('if she') can be pronounced just like ciel[sjɛl] ('sky'), or tu as[ty.ɑ] ('you have') like tua[tɥa] ('[(s)he] killed').[58]
The glide [j] can also occur in syllable coda position, after a vowel, as in soleil[sɔlɛj] ('sun'). There again, one can formulate a derivation from an underlying full vowel /i/, but the analysis is not always adequate because of the existence of possible minimal pairs like pays[pɛ.i] ('country') / paye[pɛj] ('paycheck') and abbaye[a.bɛ.i] ('abbey') / abeille[a.bɛj] ('bee').[59] Schane (1968) proposes an abstract analysis deriving postvocalic [j] from an underlying lateral by palatalization and glide conversion (/lj/ → /ʎ/ → /j/).[60]
Vowel
Onset glide
Examples
/j/
/ɥ/
/w/
/a/
/ja/
/ɥa/
/wa/
paillasse, Éluard, poire
/ɑ/
/jɑ/
/ɥɑ/
/wɑ/
acariâtre, tuas, jouas
/ɑ̃/
/jɑ̃/
/ɥɑ̃/
/wɑ̃/
vaillant, exténuant, Assouan
/e/
/je/
/ɥe/
/we/
janvier, muer, jouer
/ɛ/
/jɛ/
/ɥɛ/
/wɛ/
lierre, duel, mouette
/ɛ̃/
/jɛ̃/
/ɥɛ̃/
/wɛ̃/
bien, juin, soin
/i/
/ji/
/ɥi/
/wi/
yin, huile, ouïr
/o/
/jo/
/ɥo/
/wo/
Millau, duo, statuquo
/ɔ/
/jɔ/
/ɥɔ/
/wɔ/
Niort, quatuor, wok
/ɔ̃/
/jɔ̃/
/ɥɔ̃/
/wɔ̃/
lion, tuons, jouons
/ø/
/jø/
/ɥø/
/wø/
mieux, fructueux, boueux
/œ/
/jœ/
/ɥœ/
/wœ/
antérieur, sueur, loueur
/œ̃/
—
—
—
/u/
/ju/
—
/wu/
caillou, Wuhan
/y/
/jy/
—
—
feuillu
Stress
Word stress is not distinctive in French, so two words cannot be distinguished based on stress placement alone. Grammatical stress is always on the final full syllable (syllable with a vowel other than schwa) of a word. Monosyllables with schwa as their only vowel (ce, de, que, etc.) are generally clitics but otherwise may receive stress.[38]
The difference between stressed and unstressed syllables in French is less marked than in English. Vowels in unstressed syllables keep their full quality, regardless of whether the rhythm of the speaker is syllable-timed or mora-timed (see isochrony).[61] Moreover, words lose their stress to varying degrees when pronounced in phrases and sentences. In general, only the last word in a phonological phrase retains its full grammatical stress (on its last full syllable).[62]
Emphatic stress
Emphatic stress is used to call attention to a specific element in a given context such as to express a contrast or to reinforce the emotive content of a word. In French, this stress falls on the first consonant-initial syllable of the word in question. The characteristics associated with emphatic stress include increased amplitude and pitch of the vowel and gemination of the onset consonant, as mentioned above.[63] Emphatic stress does not replace, but occurs in tandem with, grammatical stress.[64]
C'est parfaitement vrai. [sɛ.paʁ.fɛt.mɑ̃.ˈvʁɛ] ('It's perfectly true.'; no emphatic stress)
C'est parfaitement vrai.[sɛ.ˈp(ː)aʁ.fɛt.mɑ̃.ˈvʁɛ] (emphatic stress on parfaitement)
For words that begin with a vowel, emphatic stress falls on the first syllable that begins with a consonant or on the initial syllable with the insertion of a glottal stop or a liaison consonant.
C'est épouvantable.[sɛ.te.ˈp(ː)u.vɑ̃ˈ.tabl] ('It's terrible.'; emphatic stress on second syllable of épouvantable)
C'est épouvantable ![sɛ.ˈt(ː)e.pu.vɑ̃.ˈtabl] (initial syllable with liaison consonant [t])
C'est épouvantable ![sɛ.ˈʔe.pu.vɑ̃.ˈtabl] (initial syllable with glottal stop insertion)
French intonation differs substantially from that of English.[65] There are four primary patterns:
The continuation pattern is a rise in pitch occurring in the last syllable of a rhythm group (typically a phrase).
The finality pattern is a sharp fall in pitch occurring in the last syllable of a declarative statement.
The yes/no intonation is a sharp rise in pitch occurring in the last syllable of a yes/no question.
The information question intonation is a rapid fall-off from a high pitch on the first word of a non-yes/no question, often followed by a small rise in pitch on the last syllable of the question.
^"Some phoneticians claim that there are two distinct as in French, but evidence from speaker to speaker and sometimes within the speech of a single speaker is too contradictory to give empirical support to this claim".Casagrande (1984:20)
^"For example, some have the front [a] in casse 'breaks', and the back [ɑ] in tasse 'cup', but for others the reverse is true. There are also, of course, those who use the same vowel, either [a] or [ɑ], in both words".Tranel (1987:48)
^Hansen, Anita Berit (1998). Les voyelles nasales du français parisien moderne. Aspects linguistiques, sociolinguistiques et perceptuels des changements en cours (in French). Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN978-87-7289-495-9.
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Wells, J.C. (1989), "Computer-Coded Phonemic Notation of Individual Languages of the European Community", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 19 (1): 31–54, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005892, S2CID145148170
Yaguello, Marina (1991), "Les géminées de M. Rocard", En écoutant parler la langue, Paris: Seuil, pp. 64–70
هذه المقالة تحتاج للمزيد من الوصلات للمقالات الأخرى للمساعدة في ترابط مقالات الموسوعة. فضلًا ساعد في تحسين هذه المقالة بإضافة وصلات إلى المقالات المتعلقة بها الموجودة في النص الحالي. (أغسطس 2017) نادي رادنيك بيلينا تأسس عام 1945 البلد البوسنة والهرسك الدوري دوري البوسنة
Segretario di gabinetto per l'istruzione e le competenze Nome originaleCabinet Secretary for Education and Skills Stato Regno Unito Scozia In caricaJenny Gilruth da29 marzo 2023 Istituitomaggio 1999 Nominato daPrimo ministro della Scozia SedeEdimburgo Sito webwww.gov.scot Modifica dati su Wikidata · Manuale Il Segretario di gabinetto per l'istruzione e le competenze (in inglese: Cabinet Secretary for Education and Skills), comunemente indicato come Segretario pe…
Nikolas Jaspert bei einem Vortrag, aufgenommen von Werner Maleczek im Jahr 2016. Nikolas Jaspert (* 28. Dezember 1962 in Melbourne) ist ein deutscher Historiker für Mittelalterliche Geschichte. Seit Oktober 2013 ist er Professor für Mittelalterliche Geschichte an der Universität Heidelberg. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Leben 2 Forschungsschwerpunkte 3 Schriften 4 Literatur 5 Weblinks 6 Anmerkungen Leben Nikolas Jaspert studierte Geschichte, Hispanistik, Kunstgeschichte und Anglistik an der Freien Uni…
artikel ini tidak memiliki pranala ke artikel lain. Tidak ada alasan yang diberikan. Bantu kami untuk mengembangkannya dengan memberikan pranala ke artikel lain secukupnya. (Pelajari cara dan kapan saatnya untuk menghapus pesan templat ini) Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Desember 2018. Bukit Klangon…
American college basketball season 1954–55 North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketballConferenceAtlantic Coast ConferenceRecord10–11 (8–6 ACC)Head coachFrank McGuireHome arenaWoollen GymnasiumSeasons← 1953–541955–56 → In the 1954–1955 season, the North Carolina Tar Heels men's basketball team competed in a total of twenty-one games and finished with a record of 10–11. The team finished the season in sixth place in the Atlantic Coast Conference. Schedul…
Copertina della prima edizione del Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, uno dei principali testi che fondarono la moderna teoria algebrica dei numeri La teoria algebrica dei numeri è una branca della teoria dei numeri che usa le tecniche dell'algebra astratta per studiare gli interi, i razionali e le loro generalizzazioni. In questo modo, i problemi teorici sui numeri possono essere espressi in termini di proprietà di oggetti algebrici come i campi algebrici di numeri e i loro anelli di interi, i camp…
American political commentator and TV anchor Steve DoocyDoocy in 2019BornStephen James Doocy (1956-10-19) October 19, 1956 (age 67)Algona, Iowa, U.S.Alma materUniversity of Kansas (BS)Occupation(s)Author, news anchorSpouseKathy Gerrity DoocyChildren3, including Peter Doocy Stephen James Doocy (/ˈduːsi/; born October 19, 1956) is an American television host, political commentator, and author. He is an anchor of Fox & Friends on the Fox News Channel.[1] Early life and educa…
Ten artykuł od 2015-12 zawiera treści, przy których brakuje odnośników do źródeł.Uwagi: Hasło zawiera bardzo niewielką ilość źródeł, co utrudnia jego weryfikowalność (2015-12).Należy dodać przypisy do treści niemających odnośników do wiarygodnych źródeł.(Dodanie listy źródeł bibliograficznych lub linków zewnętrznych nie jest wystarczające).Sprawdź w źródłach: Encyklopedia PWN • Google Books • Google Scholar • Federacj…
Belgian professional basketball player Axel HervelleHervelle in 2007Personal informationBorn (1983-05-12) 12 May 1983 (age 40)Liège, BelgiumNationalityBelgianListed height6 ft 10 in (2.08 m)Listed weight242 lb (110 kg)Career informationNBA draft2005: 2nd round, 52nd overall pickSelected by the Denver NuggetsPlaying career2000–2020PositionPower forwardCareer history2000–2004Verviers-Pepinster2004–2009Real Madrid2009–2018Bilbao2018–2020Spirou Career highlig…
Steamship in British Columbia This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (January 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Sicamous SS Sicamous in Penticton History Canada OwnerS.S. Sicamous Restoration Society OperatorCanadian Pacific Railway Port of registryVictoria, No. 134726:56 RoutePenticton to Okanagan Landing Cost$180,000.00 Launched1914 Maiden voyageMay 19, 1914…
Indian television actress (born 1989) Adaa KhanKhan in 2017Born (1989-05-12) 12 May 1989 (age 34)Mumbai, Maharashtra, IndiaOccupationsActressmodelYears active2009—presentKnown forBehenein Amrit Manthan Naagin Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi 10 Adaa Khan (born 12 May 1989) is an Indian television actress and model .[1] She is known for portraying Akashi in Behenein, Amrit in Amrit Manthan and Shesha in Naagin. In 2020, she participated in Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi 1…
Student organisation in India This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: All India Students' Federation – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (Ma…
Hubungan Kuba-Israel Kuba Israel Hubungan Kuba–Israel merujuk kepada hubungan sejarah dan saat ini antara Kuba dan Israel. Kedua negara tersebut tak memiliki hubungan diplomatik resmi sejak 1973. Israel menempatkan Seksi Kepentingan di kedubes Kanada di Havana.[1] Sejarah Hubungan awal Duta Besar Kuba Ricardo Wolf dengan Presiden Israel Yitzhak Ben-Zvi adan Menteri Luar Negeri Golda Meir di Yerusalem, 1960 Sejak pendirian Israel, hubungan antara Kuba dan Israel merenggang. Pada 1919, K…
Location of Smith Island in the South Shetland Islands. Topographic map of Smith Island. Batak Point (Bulgarian: нос Батак, ‘Nos Batak’ \'nos ba-'tak\) is a point on the northwest coast of Smith Island, South Shetland Islands situated 7 km north-northeast of Cape James, 2.5 km south-southwest of Lista Point and 1.7 km northwest of Organa Peak. Bulgarian early mapping in 2009. Named after the town of Batak in southern Bulgaria. 63°02′30.2″S 62°39′26″W / …
Star Trek: The Lost EraThe Sundered (2003) by Michael A. Martin and Andy MangelsAuthorVariousCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishGenreScience fictionPublisherPocket BooksPublished2003–2014Media typePrint (Paperback)No. of books7Websitestartrekbooks.com Star Trek: The Lost Era is a series of seven thematically linked novels that explore the period between the film The Undiscovered Country and The Next Generation episode Encounter at Farpoint. The series was conceived and edited by Mario Palmieri…
Newspaper published in Bel Air, Maryland, US The Aegis & IntelligencerThe cover page of the March 18, 1864 issue of The Aegis & IntelligencerTypeWeekly newspaperOwner(s)Walter Finney and Louis Dashiell (1899-1904), John D. Worthington (1904-1923)Founder(s)John CoxPublisherBateman & Baker (1864-1869), F.W. Baker (1869-1894), Frank E. Gorrell (1894-1899), Walter Finney and Louis Dashiell (1899-1904), John D. Worthington (1904-1923)EditorA. W. Bateman (1864-1869), Frederick W. Baker (18…
Take a Bow da cantora Madonna, se tornou o seu décimo primeiro e mais duradouro single número um nos Estados Unidos. Este anexo lista os singles número um na Billboard Hot 100 em 1995. A parada musical classifica o desempenho de singles nos Estados Unidos. Publicada pela revista Billboard, os dados são recolhidos pela Nielsen SoundScan, baseado em cada venda semanal física e digital, e também popularidade da canção nas rádios. O longest-running[nota 1] do ano ficou por conta da canção…
Study of cognitive processes involved in social interactions For the academic journal, see Social Cognition (journal). Part of a series onPsychology Outline History Subfields Basic psychology Abnormal Affective neuroscience Affective science Behavioral genetics Behavioral neuroscience Behaviorism Cognitive/Cognitivism Cognitive neuroscience Social Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Developmental Differential Ecological Evolutionary Experimental Gestalt Intelligence Mathematical Moral Neuropsych…
2017 single by LogicEverybodySingle by Logicfrom the album Everybody ReleasedMarch 31, 2017Recorded2015GenreHip hopLength2:42LabelVisionaryDef JamSongwriter(s)Bobby Hall IIArjun IvaturyProducer(s)Logic6ixPSTMNLogic singles chronology Sriracha (2016) Everybody (2017) Black Spiderman (2017) Audio samplefilehelp Everybody is a song by the American rapper Logic. It is the lead single from his third studio album, Everybody, and was released by Visionary Music Group and Def Jam Recordings on March 31,…
Secondary school in Sabah, MalaysiaTakis National Secondary SchoolSekolah Menengah Kebangsaan TakisAddressPO. BOX 486, 89608SabahMalaysiaInformationTypeSecondary SchoolMottoIlmu Asas KecemerlanganEstablished2001School districtPaparSessionOne sessionPrincipalHaji Mokhtar Haji IbrahimGradesForm 1 – Form 6LanguageMalay language, English, ArabicInformationTel : 088-915251Fax : 088-911632Websitesmktakis.webs.com Takis National Secondary School (Malay: Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Takis) is…
Intentional act of causing one's own death For information on prevention, see Suicide prevention. For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). Medical conditionSuicideLe Suicidé by Édouard ManetSpecialtyPsychiatry, clinical psychology, clinical social workUsual onset15–30 and 70+ years old[1]Risk factorsDepression, bipolar disorder, autism, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders, alcoholism, substance abuse[2][3][4][5]PreventionLimiti…
Este artículo o sección necesita referencias que aparezcan en una publicación acreditada.Este aviso fue puesto el 20 de abril de 2015. Carlota del Reino Unido Consorte del soberano de Wurtemberg Retratada por William Beechey, 1797Reinado 22 de diciembre de 1797-30 de octubre de 1816(18 años y 313 días)Predecesor Federica de Brandeburgo-SchwedtSucesor Catalina Pávlovna RománovaPrincesa real del Reino Unido 29 de octubre de 1766-5 de octubre de 1828(61 años y 342 días)…
Come leggere il tassoboxCorydoras atropersonatus Esemplare di C. Atropersonatus Classificazione scientifica Dominio Eukaryota Regno Animalia Sottoregno Eumetazoa Superphylum Deuterostomia Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata Classe Actinopterygii Sottoclasse Neopterygii Infraclasse Teleostei Ordine Siluriformes Famiglia Callichthyidae Genere Corydoras Specie C. atropersonatus Corydoras atropersonatus (Weitzman & Nijssen, 1970), è un pesce tropicale d'acqua dolce, appartenente alla famiglia …
October 1921 radical revolt Bloody NightPrime Minister António Granjo is shot by the rebelsDate19 October 1921 (1921-10-19)LocationLisbon, PortugalResulted in1922 Portuguese legislative electionParties Rioting members of the Army, Navy, and GNR soldiers Portuguese Government Lead figures Corporal Abel Olímpio Prime Minister António Granjo António Machado Santos Carlos da Maia Freitas da Silva Colonel Botelho de Vasconcelos Francisco Cunha Leal Cas…
2014 single by Tieks featuring CelesteSing That SongSingle by Tieks featuring CelesteReleased9 September 2014Recorded2014GenreDanceLength2:59LabelAtlanticTieks singles chronology Sing That Song (2014) Sunshine (2015) Celeste singles chronology Sing That Song(2014) Touch Me(2015) Sing That Song is a song performed by English producer and songwriter Tieks, featuring vocals from Celeste. The song was released as a digital download in the United Kingdom on 9 September 2014 through Atlantic R…
Richard Errett Smalley Richard Errett Smalley (Akron, Ohio, 6 Juni 1943–28 Oktober 2005) adalah seorang kimiawan Amerika Serikat. Ia adalah profesor kimia dan juga profesor fisika dan astronomi di Universitas Rice. Smalley menerima Penghargaan Nobel dalam Kimia pada tahun 1996 untuk penemuan bentuk baru karbon, buckminsterfullerene bersama dengan Robert Curl dan Harold Kroto. Smalley belajar di Hope College sebelum pindah ke Universitas Michigan di mana ia menerima gelar B.S. (Sarjana Sains) p…
Эта статья — о психо-эротической практике. О религиозном движении флагеллантов см. Флагеллантство. В статье есть список источников, но не хватает сносок. Без сносок сложно определить, из какого источника взято каждое отдельное утверждение. Вы можете улучшить ст…
