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The name Pakistan was coined by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who in January 1933 first published it (originally as "Pakstan") in a pamphlet Now or Never, using it as an acronym.[31] Rahmat Ali explained: "It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our homelands, Indian and Asian, Panjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan." He added, "Pakistan is both a Persian and Urdu word... It means the land of the Paks, the spiritually pure and clean."[32] Etymologists note that پاکpāk, is 'pure' in Persian and Pashto[33] and the Persian suffix ـستان-stan means 'land' or 'place of'.[34][35][36][37]
Rahmat Ali's concept of Pakistan only related to the north-west area of the Indian subcontinent. He also proposed the name "Banglastan" for the Muslim areas of Bengal and "Osmanistan" for Hyderabad State, as well as a political federation between the three.[38][39]
Some of the earliest ancient human civilizations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan.[40] The earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab.[41] The Indus region, which covers most of the present-day Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic (7000–4300 BCE) site of Mehrgarh,[42][43][44] and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, including Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.[45][46]
Vedic Period
Following the decline of the Indus valley civilization, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration in the Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE), bringing with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices which fused with local culture.[47] The Indo-Aryans religious beliefs and practices from the Bactria–Margiana culture and the native Harappan Indus beliefs of the former Indus Valley Civilization eventually gave rise to Vedic culture and tribes.[48][note 1] Most notable among them was Gandhara civilization, which flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting trade routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilizations.[50] The initial early Vedic culture was a tribal, pastoral society centered in the Indus Valley, of what is today Pakistan. During this period the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.[note 2]
Classical Period
The western regions of Pakistan became part of Achaemenid Empire around 519 BCE. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region by defeating various local rulers, most notably, the King Porus, at Jhelum.[52] It was followed by the Maurya Empire, founded by Chandragupta Maurya and extended by Ashoka the Great, until 185 BCE. The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180–165 BCE) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165–150 BCE), prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region.[53][54] Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic period in the 6th century BCE.[55][56] The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was provided on an individualistic basis.[56] The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of Alexander the Great and was also recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE.[57]
At its zenith, the Rai dynasty (489–632 CE) ruled Sindh and the surrounding territories.[58]
Islamic conquest
The Arab conqueror Muhammad ibn Qasim conquered Sindh and some regions of Punjab in 711 CE.[59][60] The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid[59][61] but the concept of Pakistan arrived in the 19th century. The Early Medieval period (642–1219 CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region. Before the arrival of Islam beginning in the 8th century, the region comprising Pakistan was home to a diverse plethora of faiths, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Zoroastrianism.[62][63] During this period, Sufimissionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional population to Islam.[64] Upon the defeat of the Turk and Hindu Shahi dynasties which governed the Kabul Valley, Gandhara (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkwa), and western Punjab in the 7th to 11th centuries CE, several successive Muslim empires ruled over the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975–1187 CE), the Ghorid Kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE). The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE).
The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region.[65] In the region of modern-day Pakistan, key cities during the Mughal period were Multan, Lahore, Peshawar and Thatta,[66] which were chosen as the site of impressive Mughal buildings.[67] In the early 16th century, the region remained under the Mughal Empire.[68] In the 18th century, the slow disintegration of the Mughal Empire was hastened by the emergence of the rival powers of the Maratha Confederacy and later the Sikh Empire, as well as invasions by Nader Shah from Iran in 1739 and the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan in 1759. The growing political power of the British in Bengal had not yet reached the territories of modern Pakistan.
None of modern Pakistan was under British rule until 1839 when Karachi, a small fishing village governed by Talpurs of Sindh with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was taken, and used as an enclave with a port and military base for the First Afghan War that ensued. The remainder of Sindh was acquired in 1843, and subsequently, through a series of wars and treaties, the East India Company, and later, after the post-Sepoy Mutiny (1857–1858), direct rule by Queen Victoria of the British Empire, acquired most of the region. Key conflicts included those against the BalochTalpur dynasty, resolved by the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh, the Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845–1849), and the Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839–1919). By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the British Indian Empire, and remained so until independence in 1947.
The 1946 elections saw the Muslim League secure 90 percent of the Muslim seats, supported by the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. This forced the Indian National Congress, initially skeptical of the League's representation of Indian Muslims, to acknowledge its significance.[84][85] Jinnah's emergence as the voice of the Indian Muslims compelled the British to consider his stance, despite their reluctance to partition India. In a final attempt to prevent partition, they proposed the Cabinet Mission Plan.[86]
In the riots that accompanied the partition in Punjab Province, between 200,000 and 2,000,000[89] people were killed in what some have described as a retributive genocide between the religions.[90] Around 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men, while 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims.[91] Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India.[92] It was the largest mass migration in human history.[93] A subsequent dispute over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir eventually sparked the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948.[94]
The creation of Pakistan was never fully accepted by many British leaders including Lord Mountbatten.[97] Mountbatten expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan.[98] Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan.[99] When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, he replied 'most probably'.[100]
"You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed – that has nothing to do with the business of the State."
Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, a respected Deobandi alim (scholar) who held the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamaat-i-Islami played key roles in advocating for an Islamic constitution. Mawdudi insisted that the Constituent Assembly declare the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the shariah in Pakistan.[102]
The efforts of Jamaat-i-Islami and the ulama led to the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949. This resolution, described by Liaquat Ali Khan as the second most significant step in Pakistan's history, affirmed that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust". It was later included as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.[103]
Independent researchers estimate that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts the number of dead at three million,[111] a figure that is now nearly universally regarded as excessively inflated.[112] Some academics such as Rudolph Rummel and Rounaq Jahan say both sides[113] committed genocide; others such as Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose believe there was no genocide.[114] In response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan, preemptive strikes on India by Pakistan's air force, navy, and marines sparked a conventional war in 1971 that resulted in an Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh.[108]
Pakistan, the only country established in the name of Islam,[138] had overwhelming support among Muslims, especially in provinces like the United Provinces, where Muslims were a minority.[139] This idea, articulated by the Muslim League, the Islamic clergy, and Jinnah, envisioned an Islamic state.[140] Jinnah, closely associated with the ulama, was described upon his death by Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani as the greatest Muslim after Aurangzeb, aspiring to unite Muslims worldwide under Islam.[141]
The Objectives Resolution of March 1949 marked the initial step towards this goal, affirming God as the sole sovereign.[142][103] Muslim League leader Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman asserted that Pakistan could only truly become an Islamic state after bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit.[143] Keith Callard observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world, expecting similar views on religion and nationality from Muslims worldwide.[144]
Pakistan's desire for a united Islamic bloc, called Islamistan, wasn't supported by other Muslim governments,[145] though figures like the Grand Mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood were drawn to the country. Pakistan's desire for an international organization of Muslim countries was fulfilled in the 1970s when the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) was formed.[146] East Pakistan's Bengali Muslims, opposed to an Islamist state, clashed with West Pakistanis who leaned towards Islamic identity.[147][148] The Islamist party Jamaat-e-Islami backed an Islamic state and opposed Bengali nationalism.[149]
After the 1970 general elections, the Parliament crafted the 1973 Constitution.[150] It declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic, with Islam as the state religion, and mandated laws to comply with Islamic teachings laid down in the Quran and Sunnah and that no law repugnant to such injunctions could be enacted.[151] Additionally, it established institutions like the Shariat Court and the Council of Islamic Ideology to interpret and apply Islam.[152]
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto faced opposition under the banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa ("Rule of the Prophet"),[153] advocating an Islamic state. Bhutto conceded to some Islamist demands before being ousted in a coup.[154]
General Zia-ul-Haq, after seizing power, committed to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing sharia law.[154] He instituted Shariat judicial courts[155] and court benches[156] to adjudicate using Islamic doctrine.[157] Zia aligned with Deobandi institutions,[158] exacerbating sectarian tensions with anti-Shia policies.[159]
Most Pakistanis, according to a Pew Research Center (PEW) poll, favor Sharia law as the official law,[160] and identify more with religion than nationality compared to Muslims in other nations such as Egypt, Indonesia and Jordan.[161]
Pakistan's diverse geography and climate host a wide array of wildlife.[162] Covering 881,913 km2 (340,509 sq mi), Pakistan's size is comparable to France and the UK combined. It ranks as the 33rd-largest nation by total area, but this varies based on Kashmir's disputed status. Pakistan boasts a 1,046 km (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman,[163] and shares land borders totaling 6,774 km (4,209 mi), including 2,430 km (1,510 mi) with Afghanistan, 523 km (325 mi) with China, 2,912 km (1,809 mi) with India, and 909 km (565 mi) with Iran.[164] It has a maritime border with Oman,[165] and shares a border with Tajikistan via the Wakhan Corridor.[166] Situated at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East, and Central Asia,[167] Pakistan's location is geopolitically significant. Geologically, Pakistan straddles the Indus–Tsangpo Suture Zone and the Indian tectonic plate in Sindh and Punjab, while Balochistan and most of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa sit on the Eurasian plate, primarily on the Iranian plateau. Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, along the Indian plate's edge, are susceptible to powerful earthquakes.[168]
Pakistan's landscapes vary from coastal plains to glaciated mountains, offering deserts, forests, hills, and plateaus.[169] Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Balochistan Plateau.[170] The northern highlands feature the Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Pamir mountain ranges, hosting some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), notably K2 (8,611 m or 28,251 ft) and Nanga Parbat (8,126 m or 26,660 ft).[171] The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert in the east. The 1,609 km (1,000 mi) Indus River and its tributaries traverse the nation from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea, sustaining alluvial plains along the Punjab and Sindh regions.[172]
The climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all. Pakistan experiences four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November.[73] Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, with patterns of alternate flooding and drought common.[173]
The diverse landscape and climate in Pakistan support a wide range of trees and plants. From coniferous alpine and subalpine trees like spruce, pine, and deodar cedar in the northern mountains to deciduous trees like shisham in the Sulaiman Mountains, and palms such as coconut and date in the southern regions. The western hills boast juniper, tamarisk, coarse grasses, and scrub plants. Mangrove forests dominate the coastal wetlands in the south.[174] Coniferous forests span altitudes from 1,000 to 4,000 metres (3,300 to 13,100 feet) in most northern and northwestern highlands. In Balochistan's xeric regions, date palms and Ephedra are prevalent. In Punjab and Sindh's Indus plains, tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forests as well as tropical and xeric shrublands thrive.[175] Approximately 2.2% or 1,687,000 hectares (16,870 km2) of Pakistan was forested in 2010.[176]
The lack of vegetative cover, severe climate, and grazing impact on deserts have endangered wild animals. The chinkara is the only animal found in significant numbers in Cholistan, with a few nilgai along the Pakistan–India border and in some parts of Cholistan.[181][185] Rare animals include the snow leopard and the blind Indus river dolphin, of which there are believed to be about 1,100 remaining, protected at the Indus River Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.[183][186] In total, 174 mammals, 177 reptiles, 22 amphibians, 198 freshwater fish species and 5,000 species of invertebrates (including insects) have been recorded in Pakistan.[178] Pakistan faces deforestation, hunting, and pollution, with a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.42/10, ranking 41st globally out of 172 countries.[187]
Pakistan operates as a democratic parliamentaryfederal republic, with Islam designated as the state religion.[5] Initially adopting a constitution in 1956, Pakistan saw it suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958, replaced by a second constitution in 1962.[76] A comprehensive constitution emerged in 1973, suspended by Zia-ul-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985, shaping the country's governance.[164] The military's influence in mainstream politics has been significant throughout Pakistan's history.[76] The eras of 1958–1971, 1977–1988, and 1999–2008 witnessed military coups, leading to martial law and military leaders governing de facto as presidents.[188] Presently, Pakistan operates a multi-partyparliamentary system with distinct checks and balances among government branches. The first successful democratic transition occurred in May 2013. Pakistani politics revolves around a blend of socialism, conservatism, and the third way, with the three main political parties being the conservative Pakistan Muslim League-N, socialist PPP, and centrist PTI. Constitutional amendments in 2010 curtailed presidential powers, enhancing the role of the prime minister.[189]
Head of State: The ceremonial head of the state and civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces is the President, elected by an Electoral College. The Prime Minister appoints military personnel and key confirmations after reviewing merit and performance reports. Almost all judicature, military, and legislative appointments require executive confirmation, with the President holding powers to pardon and grant clemency.
Executive: The Prime Minister, typically the leader of the majority rule party or coalition in the National Assembly (the lower house), serves as the country's chief executive and head of government. Responsibilities include forming a cabinet, making executive decisions, and appointing senior civil servants, subject to executive confirmation.
Provincial governments: Each of the four provinces follows a similar governance system, with a directly elected Provincial Assembly choosing the Chief Minister, usually from the largest party or coalition. Chief Ministers lead the provincial cabinet and oversee provincial governance. The Chief Secretary, appointed by the Prime Minister, heads the provincial bureaucracy. Provincial assemblies legislate and approve the provincial budget, typically presented by the provincial finance minister annually. Ceremonial heads of provinces, the Provincial Governors, are appointed by the President.[164]
Judicature: The judiciary in Pakistan has two classes: the superior and subordinate judiciary. The Chief Justice of Pakistan oversees the court system at all levels. The superior judiciary includes the Supreme Court of Pakistan, Federal Shariat Court, and five high courts, with the Supreme Court at the top. It's responsible for safeguarding the constitution. Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan have their own court systems.
Since Independence, Pakistan has aimed to balance its foreign relations.[190] Pakistan's foreign policy and geostrategy focus on the economy, security, national identity, and territorial integrity, as well as building close ties with other Muslim nations.[191] According to Hasan Askari Rizvi, a foreign policy expert, "Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy."[192]
The Kashmir conflict remains a major issue between Pakistan and India, with three of their four wars fought over it.[193] Due partly to strained relations with India, Pakistan has close ties with Turkey and Iran,[194] both focal points in its foreign policy.[194] Saudi Arabia also holds importance in Pakistan's foreign relations.
Located strategically in the world's major maritime oil supply lines and communication fiber optic corridors, Pakistan also enjoys proximity to the natural resources of Central Asian countries.[200] Pakistan actively participates in the United Nations with a Permanent Representative representing its positions in international politics.[201] It has advocated for the concept of "enlightened moderation" in the Muslim world.[202] Pakistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations,[203]SAARC, ECO,[204] and the G20 developing nations.[205]
Pakistan is designated as an "Iron Brother" by China,[206][207] emphasizing the significance of their close and supportive relationship.[208] In the 1950s, Pakistan opposed the Soviet Union for geopolitical reasons. During the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, it was a close ally of the United States.[192][209] Relations with Russia have improved since 1999,[210] but Pakistan's relationship with the United States has been "on-and-off." Initially, Pakistan was a close ally during the Cold War, but relations soured in the 1990s due to US sanctions over its secretive nuclear program.[211] Since 9/11, Pakistan has been a US ally on counterterrorism, but their relationship has been strained due to diverging interests and mistrust during the 20-year war and terrorism issues.[212] Although Pakistan was granted major non-NATO ally status by the US in 2004,[213] its intelligence agency, including ISI, faced accusations of supporting the Taliban insurgents until US troops withdrew from Afghanistan.[214][215][216]
Pakistan was among the first nations to establish formal diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China, forging a strong relationship since China's 1962 conflict with India, culminating in a special bond.[222] Throughout the 1960s to 1980s, Pakistan played a crucial role in China's global outreach, facilitating US President Richard Nixon's historic visit to China.[222] Despite changes in Pakistani governance and regional/global dynamics, China's influence in Pakistan remains paramount.[222] In reciprocation, China stands as Pakistan's largest trading partner, with substantial investment in Pakistani infrastructure, notably the Gwadar port. In 2015 alone, they inked 51 agreements and Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) for cooperative efforts.[223] Both nations signed a Free Trade Agreement in the 2000s, with China making its largest investment in Pakistan's history through CPEC.[224] Pakistan acts as China's liaison to the Muslim world, and both nations support each other on sensitive issues like Kashmir, Taiwan, Xinjiang, and more.[225]
Emphasis on relations with the Muslim world
After Independence, Pakistan vigorously pursued bilateral relations with other Muslim countries.[226] The Ali brothers sought to project Pakistan as the natural leader of the Islamic world, partly due to its significant manpower and military strength.[227]Khaliquzzaman, a prominent Muslim League leader, declared Pakistan's ambition to unite all Muslim countries into Islamistan, a pan-Islamic entity.[228]
These developments, alongside Pakistan's creation, didn't receive approval from the United States, with British Prime Minister Clement Attlee expressing a hope for India and Pakistan to reunite.[229] However, due to a nationalist awakening in the Arab world at that time, there was little interest in Pakistan's Pan-Islamic aspirations.[230] Some Arab countries perceived the 'Islamistan' project as Pakistan's bid to dominate other Muslim states.[231]
Pakistan vigorously advocated for self-determination among Muslims globally. Its efforts in supporting independence movements in countries like Indonesia, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Eritrea fostered strong ties.[232] Although initially tense due to the secession war, relations between Pakistan and Bangladesh have deepened recently.[233]
Conversely, Pakistan's relations with Iran have faced strains over sectarian tensions.[234] Iran and Saudi Arabia have used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war. By the 1990s, Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban in Afghanistan posed a challenge for Shia-led Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.[235] Tensions escalated in 1998 when Iran accused Pakistan of war crimes after Pakistani warplanes bombed Afghanistan's last Shia stronghold in support of the Taliban.[236] As the Taliban regains power in the 2020s, Pakistan advocates for cooperation among neighboring countries, arguing against the use of Afghanistan for geopolitical rivalry.[237]
Pakistan, a prominent member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), prioritizes maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with Arab and other Muslim-majority nations in its foreign policy.[238]
Kashmir, a Himalayan region at the northern tip of the Indian subcontinent, was governed as the autonomous princely state of Jammu and Kashmir during the British Raj before the Partition of India in August 1947. This sparked a major territorial dispute between India and Pakistan, resulting in several conflicts over the region. India controls about 45.1% of Kashmir, including Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, while Pakistan controls roughly 38.2%, comprising Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit−Baltistan. Additionally, about 20% of the region, known as Aksai Chin and the Shaksgam Valley, is under Chinese control.[252] India claims the entire Kashmir region based on the Instrument of Accession signed by the princely state's ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, while Pakistan argues for its Muslim-majority population and geographical proximity to Pakistan. The United Nations was involved in resolving the conflict, leading to a ceasefire in 1949 and the establishment of the Line of Control (LoC) as a de facto border.[253] India, fearing Kashmir's secession, did not hold the promised plebiscite, as it believed Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan.[254]
Pakistan claims that its position is for the right of the Kashmiri people to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations,[255] while India has stated that Kashmir is an "integral part" of India, referring to the 1972 Simla Agreement and to the fact that regional elections take place regularly.[256] In recent developments, certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.[193]
Elite Police Units: Each provincial police force, such as the Punjab Elite Force, focuses on counter-terrorism operations and high-risk situations.
The Civil Armed Forces (CAF) support regular law enforcement agencies, aiding in tasks like riot control, counter-insurgency, and border security, enhancing Pakistan's law enforcement capabilities.[257]
The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) is the highest-ranking military officer, advising the civilian government.[266] However, they lack direct command over the branches and serve as intermediaries, ensuring communication between the military and civilian leadership.[266] Overseeing the Joint Staff Headquarters, they coordinate inter-service cooperation and joint military missions.[266][267]
Despite the UN arms embargo on Bosnia, General Javed Nasir of the ISI airlifted anti-tank weapons and missiles to Bosnian mujahideen, shifting the tide in favor of Bosnian Muslims. ISI, under Nasir's leadership, supported Chinese Muslims in Xinjiang, rebel groups in the Philippines, and religious groups in Central Asia.[280][281]
Pakistan's economy ranks 24th globally by purchasing power parity (PPP) and 43rd by nominal GDP. Historically, Pakistan was part of the wealthiest region in the first millennium CE, but lost ground to regions like China and Western Europe by the 18th century.[292] Pakistan is a developing country,[293] and part of the Next Eleven, poised to become one of the world's largest economies in the 21st century, alongside the BRICS.[294]
In recent years, Pakistan has faced social instability and macroeconomic imbalances, with deficiencies in services like rail transportation and electrical energy generation.[295] The semi-industrialized economy has growth centers along the Indus River.[296][297][298] The diversified economies of Karachi and Punjab's urban centers coexist with less-developed areas in other parts of the country, particularly in Balochistan.[297] Pakistan ranks as the 67th-largest export economy and the 106th-most complex economy globally, with a negative trade balance of US$23.96 billion in fiscal year 2015–16.[299][300]
As of 2022[update], Pakistan's estimated nominal GDP is US$376.493 billion.[301] The GDP by PPP is US$1.512 trillion. The estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,658, the GDP (PPP)/capita is US$6,662 (international dollars),[285] According to the World Bank, Pakistan has important strategic endowments and development potential. The increasing proportion of Pakistan's youth provides the country with both a potential demographic dividend and a challenge to provide adequate services and employment.[302] 21.04% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day. The unemployment rate among the aged 15 and over population is 5.5%.[303] Pakistan has an estimated 40 million middle class citizens, projected to increase to 100 million by 2050.[304] A 2015 report published by the World Bank ranked Pakistan's economy at 24th-largest[305] in the world by purchasing power and 41st-largest[306] in absolute terms. It is South Asia's second-largest economy, representing about 15.0% of regional GDP.[307]
Pakistan's economic growth varied over time, with slow progress during democratic transitions but robust expansion under martial law, lacking sustainable foundations.[105]Rapid reforms in the early to mid-2000s, including increased development spending, reduced poverty by 10% and boosted GDP by 3%.[164][308] The economy cooled post-2007,[164] with inflation peaking at 25.0% in 2008,[309] necessitating IMF intervention to prevent bankruptcy.[310] The Asian Development Bank later noted easing economic strain in Pakistan.[311] Inflation for fiscal year 2010–11 stood at 14.1%.[312] Since 2013, Pakistan's economy has seen growth under an IMF program. Goldman Sachs predicted Pakistan's economy could grow 15 times by 2050,[313] and Ruchir Sharma in his 2016 book anticipated a transformation to a middle-income country by 2020.[314]
Pakistan's vast natural commodity production and 10th-largest labour market, along with a US$19.9 billion contribution from its 7-million-strong diaspora in 2015–16,[315][316][317] position it significantly. However, Pakistan's global export share is declining, accounting for just 0.13% in 2007 according to the World Trade Organization.[318]
The Pakistani economy has shifted from agriculture to services, with agriculture contributing only 20.9% of the GDP as of 2015.[320] Despite this, Pakistan's wheat production in 2005 surpassed Africa's and nearly matched South America's, highlighting its agricultural significance.[321] The sector employs 43.5% of the labor force and is a major source of foreign exchange.[320][322]
Manufactured exports, heavily reliant on agricultural raw materials like cotton and hides, face inflationary pressures due to supply shortages and market disruptions. Pakistan ranks fifth in cotton production, self-sufficient in sugarcane, and the fourth-largest milk producer globally. Though land and water resources haven't increased proportionately, productivity gains, especially from the Green Revolution in the late 1960s and 1970s, significantly boosted wheat and rice yields. Private tube wells and High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) further augmented crop yields.[323] Meat industry accounts for 1.4 percent of overall GDP.[324]
Industry, constituting 19.74% of GDP and 24% of total employment, is the second-largest sector. Large-scale manufacturing (LSM) dominates, representing 12.2% of GDP, with cement production thriving due to demand from Afghanistan and the domestic real estate sector.[326] In 2013, Pakistan exported 7,708,557 metric tons of cement, with an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons.[327] The textile industry, a key player in Pakistan's manufacturing, contributes 9.5% to GDP and employs around 15 million people. Pakistan ranks fourth globally in cotton production, with substantial spinning capacity, making it a major exporter of textile products in Asia.[328] China is a significant buyer of Pakistani textiles, importing US$1.527 billion worth of textiles last fiscal year.[329]
As of 2014–15, the services sector contributes 58.8% to GDP,[320] serving as the main driver of economic growth in Pakistan,[330] with a consumption-oriented society. The sector's growth rate surpasses that of agriculture and industry, accounting for 54% of GDP and over one-third of total employment. It has strong linkages with other sectors, providing essential inputs to agriculture and manufacturing.[331] Pakistan's IT sector is one of the fastest-growing, ranked 110th for ICT development by the World Economic Forum.[332] With around 82 million internet users as of May 2020, Pakistan ranks 9th globally,[333][334] and its ICT industry is projected to exceed $10 billion by 2020.[335] With 12,000 employees, Pakistan is among the top five freelancing nations,[336] and its export performance in telecom, computer, and information services has notably improved.[337]
With its diverse cultures, landscapes, and attractions, Pakistan drew around 6.6 million foreign tourists in 2018.[338] However, this was a decline from the peak of tourism in the 1970s driven by the popular Hippie trail.[339] Pakistan boasts attractions from mangroves in the south to Himalayan hill stations in the northeast, including ancient Buddhist ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Taxila, the 5,000-year-old Indus Valley civilization sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa,[340] and numerous mountain peaks over 7,000 metres (23,000 feet).[341] The northern part of Pakistan boasts numerous old fortresses, showcasing ancient architecture. It encompasses the Hunza and Chitral valleys, where the small pre-Islamic Kalasha community resides, claiming descent from Alexander the Great.[342] Lahore, Pakistan's cultural capital, showcases numerous examples of Mughal architecture, including the Badshahi Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, the Tomb of Jahangir, and the Lahore Fort. Following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, The Guardian highlighted "The top five tourist sites in Pakistan" to boost tourism, featuring destinations like Taxila, Lahore, the Karakoram Highway, Karimabad, and Lake Saiful Muluk.[343] Festivals and government initiatives aim to promote Pakistan's cultural heritage.[344] In 2015, the World Economic Forum ranked Pakistan 125th out of 141 countries in its Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report.[345]
Infrastructure
It has been suggested that portions of this section be split out into another article. (Discuss) (April 2024)
The KANUPP-I, Pakistan's first commercial nuclear power plant, was supplied by Canada in 1971. Sino-Pakistani nuclear cooperation began in the 1980s, leading to the establishment of CHASNUPP-I. In 2005, both countries proposed a joint energy security plan, aiming for a generation capacity exceeding 160,000 MWe by 2030. Pakistan's Nuclear Energy Vision 2050 targets a capacity of 40,000 MWe,[352] with 8,900 MWe expected by 2030.[353]
Pakistan's motorways, operated by the National Highway Authority, form a network of high-speed, controlled-access highways. At present, 2567 km of motorways are operational, with an additional 1191 km under construction or planned. They are identified with the prefix 'M' followed by a numerical designation, such as "M-1".[358] Pakistan's motorways play a crucial role in the National Trade Corridor Project,[359] connecting its major ports and facilitating trade with neighboring countries like Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China through the China Pakistan Economic Corridor.
Highways are vital to Pakistan's transport, covering 92% of passengers and 96% of freight traffic with a road length of 263,942 kilometres (164,006 miles). Predominantly managed by the private sector, road transport relies on the National Highway Authority for maintenance. While comprising just 4.6% of total road length, the north-south links handle 85% of the nation's traffic, connecting southern ports to populous provinces like Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[360][361]
The railroad system in Pakistan, managed by the Pakistan Railways under the Ministry of Railways, saw a decline in usage from the 1990s onwards as the automotive industry expanded and national highways were built, reducing the railway's share of inland traffic to below 8% for passengers and 4% for freight.[320] This shift led to a decrease in total rail track from 8,775 kilometres (5,453 miles) in 1990–91 to 7,791 kilometres (4,841 miles) in 2011.[360][362] However, Pakistan aims to utilize rail services to enhance foreign trade with China, Iran, and Turkey.[363]
Major seaports include Karachi in Sindh (comprising Karachi port and Port Qasim).[360][362] Since the 1990s, some seaport operations have shifted to Balochistan with the establishment of Gwadar Port and Port of Pasni.[360][362] According to the WEF's Global Competitiveness Report, Pakistan's port infrastructure quality ratings rose from 3.7 to 4.1 between 2007 and 2016.[365]
The transport landscape of Pakistan features various modern transit systems. The Orange Line Metro Train in Lahore, inaugurated in 2020,[366] spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi),[367] and includes both elevated and underground sections, accommodating over 250,000 passengers daily.[368] Lahore also boasts the Lahore Metrobus, the first of its kind in Pakistan, operational since February 2013.[369] The Rawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus, stretching 48.1 km, commenced its first phase in June 2015, with subsequent extensions, and employs e-ticketing and an Intelligent Transportation System.[370][371]Multan Metrobus, inaugurated in January 2017, serves Multan with its rapid transit services.[372][373]Peshawar's Bus Rapid Transit, inaugurated in August 2020, marks the fourth BRT system in Pakistan. Karachi's Green Line Metrobus, operational since December 2021, is part of a larger metrobus project financed by the Government of Pakistan and initiated in February 2016.[374][375][376] Meanwhile, Faisalabad awaits its proposed rapid transit project, the Faisalabad Metrobus.[377]Karachi Circular Railway, partially revived in November 2020, offers public transit services in the Karachi metropolitan area.[378][379] Additionally, plans are underway to resurrect Karachi's tramway service, which ceased operations in 1975, in collaboration with Austrian experts.[380][381]
Initiatives since 2007 made English medium education mandatory nationwide. Following a 2012 attack on activist Malala Yousafzai by the Taliban, she became the youngest Nobel laureate for her education advocacy.[389] Reforms in 2013 mandated Chinese language courses in Sindh, reflecting China's growing influence. As of 2018, Pakistan's literacy rate stands at 62.3%, with significant regional and gender disparities.[390] Government initiatives, including computer literacy since 1995, aim to eradicate illiteracy, targeting 100% enrollment among primary school-age children and an ~86% literacy rate by 2015.[391] Pakistan allocates 2.3% of its GDP to education,[392] among the lowest in South Asia.[393]
The 1960s marked the rise of Pakistan's space program, led by SUPARCO, yielding advancements in rocketry, electronics, and aeronomy. Notably, Pakistan launched its first rocket into space, pioneering South Asia's space exploration.[409] In 1990, it successfully launched its first satellite, becoming the first Muslim nation and second in South Asia to achieve this milestone.[410]
Pakistan witnessed a fourfold increase in its scientific productivity in the past decade surging from approximately 2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than 9,000 articles in 2015. Making Pakistan's cited article's higher than the BRIC countries put together.
Pakistan is the sole Muslim nation active in Antarctica research, maintaining its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station since 1992.[413] By May 2020, Pakistan had 82 million internet users, ranking ninth globally.[333][334] The government invests heavily in information technology projects, focusing on e-government and infrastructure.[414]
Between 1951 and 2017, Pakistan's population expanded over sixfold, going from 33.7 million to 207.7 million. The country has a relatively high, although declining, growth rate supported by high birth rates and low death rates. Between 1998 and 2017, the average annual population growth rate stood at +2.40%.
Dramatic social changes have led to urbanization and the emergence of two megacities: Karachi and Lahore. The country's urban population more than tripled between 1981 and 2017 (from 23.8 million to 75.7 million), as Pakistan's urbanisation rate rose from 28.2% to 36.4%. Even with this, the nation's urbanisation rate remains one of the lowest in the world, and in 2017, over 130 million Pakistanis (making up nearly 65% of the population) lived in rural areas.
Due to a high fertility rate, which was estimated at 3.5 in 2022, Pakistan has one of the world's youngest populations. The 2017 census recorded that 40.3% of the country's population was under the age of 15, while only 3.7% of Pakistanis were aged 65 or more.[419] The median age of the country was 19,[419] while its sex ratio was recorded to be 105 males per 100 females.[415]
The demographic history of Pakistan from the ancient Indus Valley civilization to the modern era includes the arrival and settlement of many cultures and ethnic groups in the modern region of Pakistan from Eurasia and the nearby Middle East. Because of this, Pakistan has a multicultural, multilinguistic, and multiethnic society. Despite Urdu being Pakistan's lingua franca, estimates on how many languages are spoken in the country range from 75 to 85,[420][421] and in 2017, the country's three largest ethnolinguistic groups were the Punjabis (making up 38.8% of the total population), the Pashtuns (18.2%), and the Sindhis (14.6%).[422] Pakistan is also thought to have the world's fourth-largest refugee population, estimated at 1.4 million in mid-2021 by the UNHCR.[423]
Pakistan is a diverse society with estimates suggesting it has between 75 to 85 languages.[425][426] Urdu and English serve as the official languages, with Urdu being a unifying force among over 75% of Pakistanis.[427][428] According to the 2017 national census, the largest ethnolinguistic groups include the Punjabis (38.8%), Pashtuns (18.2%), Sindhis (14.6%), Saraikis (12.19%), Muhajirs (7.08%), and Balochs (3.02%).[424][429] The remaining population consists of various ethnic minorities such as the Brahuis, Hindkowans, various peoples of Gilgit-Baltistan, Kashmiris, Hazaras and Sheedis.[430][431] The Pakistani diaspora, numbering over seven million, is the sixth largest in the world.[432]
Even post-1947 partition, Indian Muslims kept migrating to Pakistan, especially Karachi and Sindh province.[434] Wars in neighboring Afghanistan in the 1980s and 1990s pushed millions of Afghan refugees into Pakistan, mainly in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and tribal areas, with some in Karachi and Quetta. Pakistan hosts one of the world's largest refugee populations.[435] Additionally, around 2 million Bangladeshis and half a million undocumented individuals, purportedly from Myanmar, Iran, Iraq, and Africa, reside in Pakistan.[436] In October 2023, Pakistan ordered the expulsion of Afghans from Pakistan.[437]
Migration of Bengalis and Rohingya to Pakistan started in the 1980s and continued till 1998. Karachi hosts a significant number of Bengali settlements, and large Rohingya migration made it one of their largest populations outside Myanmar.[438] Karachi's Burmese community resides in various slums across the city.[439]
Thousands of Uyghur Muslims sought refuge in Gilgit-Baltistan, fleeing persecution in Xinjiang, China.[440] Since 1989, thousands of Kashmiri Muslim refugees fled to Pakistan, alleging rape and forced displacement by Indian soldiers.[441]
According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth-largest diaspora globally.[432] Approximately 7 million Pakistanis reside abroad, mainly in the Middle East, Europe, and North America.[442] Pakistan ranks 10th globally for remittances sent home.[316][443] Saudi Arabia is the largest source of remittances, contributing $5.9 billion as of 2016[update].[444] The term Overseas Pakistani is officially recognized by the Government of Pakistan, with the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development addressing their needs, welfare, and issues. Overseas Pakistanis constitute the second-largest source of foreign exchange remittances to Pakistan, with remittances increasing by over 100% from US$8.9 billion in 2009–10 to US$19.9 billion in 2015–16.[315][443]
Since independence due to the partition of India, urbanization has surged for various reasons. In the south, Karachi stands as the most populous commercial hub along the Indus River.[445] In the east, west, and north, a dense population arc spans cities like Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Sargodha, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan, and Peshawar. By 1990–2008, city dwellers comprised 36% of Pakistan's population, making it South Asia's most urbanized nation, with over 50% living in towns of 5,000+ inhabitants.[446]Immigration, both domestic and international, significantly fuels urban growth. Migration from India, especially to Karachi, the largest metropolis, and from nearby countries, accelerates urbanization, posing new political and socio-economic challenges. Economic shifts like the green revolution and political developments also play crucial roles.[447]
Islam is the state religion,[453] with freedom of religion guaranteed by the constitution.[453][454] The majority are Muslims (96.47%), followed by Hindus (2.14%) and Christians (1.27%). Minorities include Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Zoroastrians (Parsi), and the unique Kalash people who practice animism.[455] Hindus, mostly Sindhis, celebrate events like the Hinglaj Yatra pilgrimage, but face concerns about religious violence and emigrate due to discrimination.[456] Additionally, a small percentage profess no faith, as seen in the 1998 census.
Islam dominates in Pakistan, with about 96.47% of the population being Muslim.[457] Pakistan ranks second globally in Muslim population,[458] and is home to 10.5% of the world's Muslims.[459] Karachi is the largest Muslim city in the world.[460]
The Ahmadis are a minority, officially considered non-Muslims.[467][468] Ahmadis face persecution, banned from calling themselves Muslims since 1974.[469]
Hinduism is the second-largest religion, followed by 2.14% of the population in 2017 census.[470][471] Pakistan had the fifth-largest Hindu population globally in 2010.[472] In 2017, Hindus numbered 4,444,437.[473] They reside across Pakistan but are concentrated in Sindh, where they make up 8.73% of the population.[470]Umerkot district is the only Hindu majority area. Tharparkar district hosts the largest Hindu population. Four districts – Umerkot, Tharparkar, Mirpurkhas, and Sanghar – have over half of Pakistan's Hindus.[474]
At Pakistan's inception, the 'hostage theory' suggested fair treatment of Hindus to safeguard Muslims in India.[475] However, Khawaja Nazimuddin, Pakistan's second Prime Minister, argued against equal rights for all citizens in an Islamic state.[476] Some Pakistani Hindus feel marginalized, leading to emigration to India.[456] They faced violence post the Babri Masjid demolition,[477] enduring forced conversions and abductions.[478]
Christians are the next largest religious minority after Hindus, constituting 1.27% of the population.[427] They are concentrated in Lahore District (5%) and Islamabad Capital Territory (over 4%). Karachi hosts a historic Roman Catholic community established by Goan and Tamil migrants during British colonial rule.[474]
Following Christianity, the Bahá'í Faith had 30,000 followers in 2008, followed by Sikhism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, each with around 20,000 adherents in 2008,[479] alongside a small Jain community.
In 2005, 1% of the population identified as atheist. By 2012, this figure had risen to 2.0% according to Gallup.[480]
Civil society in Pakistan is largely hierarchical, emphasising local cultural etiquette and traditional Islamic values that govern personal and political life. The basic family unit is the extended family,[481] although for socio-economic reasons there has been a growing trend towards nuclear families.[482] The traditional dress for both men and women is the Shalwar Kameez; trousers, jeans, and shirts are also popular among men.[483] In recent decades, the middle class has increased to around 35 million and the upper and upper-middle classes to around 17 million, and power is shifting from rural landowners to the urbanised elites.[484] Pakistani festivals, including Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, Ramazan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali, are mostly religious in origin.[481] Increasing globalisation has resulted in Pakistan ranking 56th on the A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization Index.[485]
The Shalwar Kameez is the national dress of Pakistan and is worn by both men and women in all four provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style of Shalwar Kameez. Pakistanis wear clothes in a range of exquisite colours and designs and in type of fabric (silk, chiffon, cotton, etc.). Besides the national dress, domestically tailored suits and neckties are often worn by men, and are customary in offices, schools, and social gatherings.[486]
The fashion industry has flourished in the changing environment of the fashion world. Since Pakistan came into being, its fashion has evolved in different phases and developed a unique identity. Today, Pakistani fashion is a combination of traditional and modern dress and has become a mark of Pakistani culture. Despite modern trends, regional and traditional forms of dress have developed their own significance as a symbol of native tradition. This regional fashion continues to evolve into both more modern and purer forms. The Pakistan Fashion Design Council based in Lahore organizes PFDC Fashion Week and the Fashion Pakistan Council based in Karachi organizes Fashion Pakistan Week. Pakistan's first fashion week was held in November 2009.[487]
The private print media, state-owned Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV), and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) for radio were the dominant media outlets until the beginning of the 21st century. Pakistan now has a large network of domestic, privately owned 24-hour news media and television channels.[488] A 2021 report by the Reporters Without Borders ranked Pakistan 157th among 180 nations on the Press Freedom Index, it is reported multiple times that Pakistani reporters remains in pressure and threat if reported against army, government.[489] The BBC terms the Pakistani media "among the most outspoken in South Asia".[490] Pakistani media has also played a vital role in exposing corruption.[491]
The Lollywood, Punjabi and Pashto film industry is based in Karachi, Lahore and Peshawar. While Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 until 2008, they had remained an important part of popular culture.[492] In 2019, the screening of Bollywood movies was again faced with an indefinite ban.[493] In contrast to the ailing Pakistani film industry, Urdu televised dramas and theatrical performances continue to be popular, as many entertainment media outlets air them regularly.[494]Urdu dramas dominate the television entertainment industry, which has launched critically acclaimed miniseries and featured popular actors and actresses since the 1990s.[495] In the 1960s–1970s, pop music and disco (1970s) dominated the country's music industry. In the 1980s–1990s, British influencedrock music appeared and jolted the country's entertainment industry.[496] In the 2000s, heavy metal music gained popular and critical acclaim.[497]
Pakistani music ranges from diverse forms of provincial folk music and traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to modern musical forms that fuse traditional and western music.[498] Pakistan has many famous folk singers. The arrival of Afghan refugees in the western provinces has stimulated interest in Pashto music, although there has been intolerance of it in some places.[499]
Pakistan has literature in Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, Baluchi, Persian, English, and many other languages.[500] The Pakistan Academy of Letters is a large literary community that promotes literature and poetry in Pakistan and abroad.[501] The National Library publishes and promotes literature in the country. Before the 19th century, Pakistani literature consisted mainly of lyric and religious poetry and mystical and folkloric works. During the colonial period, native literary figures were influenced by western literary realism and took up increasingly varied topics and narrative forms. Prose fiction is now very popular.[502][503]
Four periods are recognised in Pakistani architecture: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial. With the beginning of the Indus civilization around the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE,[512] an advanced urban culture developed for the first time in the region, with large buildings, some of which survive to this day.[513]Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, and Kot Diji are among the pre-Islamic settlements that are now tourist attractions.[171] The rise of Buddhism and the influence of Greek civilisation led to the development of a Greco-Buddhist style,[514] starting from the 1st century CE. The high point of this era was the Gandhara style. An example of Buddhist architecture is the ruins of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.[515]
The arrival of Islam in what is today Pakistan meant the sudden end of Buddhist architecture in the area and a smooth transition to the Islamic architecture. The most important Indo-Islamic-style building still standing is the tomb of the Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan. During the Mughal era, design elements of Persian-Islamic architecture were fused with and often produced playful forms of Hindustani art. Lahore, as the occasional residence of Mughal rulers, contains many important buildings from the empire. Most prominent among them are the Badshahi Mosque, the fortress of Lahore with the famous Alamgiri Gate, the colourful, Mughal-style Wazir Khan Mosque,[516] the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, and the Shahjahan Mosque in Thatta. In the British colonial period, predominantly functional buildings of the Indo-European representative style developed from a mixture of European and Indian-Islamic components. Post-colonial national identity is expressed in modern structures such as the Faisal Mosque, the Minar-e-Pakistan, and the Mazar-e-Quaid. Several examples of architectural infrastructure demonstrating the influence of British design can be found in Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.[517]
Pakistani cuisine is similar to that of other regions of South Asia, with some of it being originated from the royal kitchens of 16th-century Mughal emperors.[519] Most of those dishes have their roots in British, Indian, Central Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine.[520] Unlike Middle Eastern cuisine, Pakistani cooking uses large quantities of spices, herbs, and seasoning. Garlic, ginger, turmeric, red chili, and garam masala are used in most dishes, and home cooking regularly includes curry, roti, a thin flatbread made from wheat, is a staple food, usually served with curry, meat, vegetables, and lentils. Rice is also common; it is served plain, fried with spices, and in sweet dishes.[167][521]
Cricket is the most popular sport in Pakistan.[524]Football has also gained popularity in recent years, and is the second most popular sport in the country.[525][526]Field hockey is the national sport, and was popular for several decades, with some of Pakistan's greatest sporting accomplishments having taken place in this sport, along with squash.[524]Polo and traditional sports like kabaddi and other well-known games are also played.[524]
In field hockey, Pakistan is one of the most successful national teams with a record four Hockey World Cup wins, eight Asian Games gold medals, three gold medals in the Olympic Games, and the only Asian team to have won the prestigious Champions Trophy, with three championships.[533][534]
Squash player Jahangir Khan is widely regarded as the greatest squash player of all time, followed by Jansher Khan.[535][536] From 1981 to 1986, Jahangir was unbeaten and during that time won 555 consecutive matches – the longest winning streak by any athlete in top-level professional sport as recorded by Guinness World Records.[537]
^"Includes data for Pakistani territories of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir (13,297 km2 or 5,134 sq mi) and Gilgit–Baltistan (72,520 km2 or 28,000 sq mi).[6] Excluding these territories would produce an area figure of 796,095 km2 (307,374 sq mi)."
^"This figure does not include data for Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan."[8]
^Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015), The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE, Cambridge University Press Quote: ""Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different from other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000 BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."
^Wright 2009, pp. 1–2:Quote: "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."
^Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982), The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, p. 81131, ISBN978-0-521-28550-6, During the second half of the fourth and early part of the third millennium B.C., a new development begins to become apparent in the greater Indus system, which we can now see to be a formative stage underlying the Mature Indus of the middle and late third millennium. This development seems to have involved the whole Indus system, and to a lesser extent the Indo-Iranian borderlands to its west, but largely left untouched the subcontinent east of the Indus system.
^Spuler, Bertold (1969). The Muslim World: a Historical Survey. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill. ISBN90-04-02104-3.
^Copland, Ian (2001), India, 1885–1947: The Unmaking of an Empire, Seminar Studies in History, Longman, ISBN978-0-582-38173-5 Quote: "However, the real turning point for the new Muslim League came with the general election of December 1945 and January 1946. Despite facing a rejuvenated Congress, the League won four-fifths of all the Muslim-reserved seats ... The result left no one, not least the British, in doubt about where the locus of power within the Muslim community now lay (p. 71) ... In most respects, therefore, the League's success in the elections of 1945–46 can be interpreted as a clear Muslim mandate for Pakistan. (p 72)" - Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-1-139-45887-0 Quote: "The loss of life was immense, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand up to a million. But, even for those who survived, fear generated a widespread perception that one could be safe only among members of one's own community; and this in turn helped consolidate loyalties towards the state, whether India or Pakistan, in which one might find a secure haven. This was especially important for Pakistan, where the succour it offered to Muslims gave that state for the first time a visible territorial reality. Fear too drove forward a mass migration unparalleled in the history of South Asia. ... Overall, partition uprooted some 12.5 million of undivided India's people."
^Buzan, Barry; Wæver, Ole (2003). Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN978-0-521-89111-0. In the framework of their regional security complex theory (RSCT), Barry Buzan and Ole Waever differentiate between superpowers and great powers which act and influence the global level (or system level) and regional powers whose influence may be large in their regions but have less effect at the global level. This category of regional powers includes Brazil, Egypt, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and Turkey.
^Vandamme, Dorothee. "Pakistan and Saudi Arabia : Towards Greater Independence in their Afghan Foreign Policy?"(PDF). Université catholique de Louvain. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 21 December 2016. Countries like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have enough influence to not be considered small, but not enough to be major powers. Within the limits of their regions, they play a significant political role. Thus instinctively, they would qualify as middle powers. While it is not the objective here to question the characteristics of Jordan's definition of middle powers, we argue that Pakistan is in fact a middle power despite its being nuclear-armed. When looking at the numbers, for instance, it appears that Saudi Arabia and Pakistan can be classified as middle powers (see in this regard Ping, 2007).
^Krishna K. Tummala, Public Administration in India (Allied Publishers, 1996), p. 42, citing Choudhry Rahmat Ali, Pakistan (Cambridge University Press, 1946), p. 225
^Hayyim, Sulayman (1892), "ستان", New Persian-English Dictionary, vol. 2, Tehran: Librairie imprimerie Béroukhim, p. 30
^Burki, Shahid Javed. "Pakistan". Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
^South Asian Studies, Volume 11 (Department of Political Science, University of Rajasthan, 1976), p. 69
^Sugam Anand, Modern Indian Historiography: From Pillai to Azad (MG Publishers, 1991), p. 178
^Petraglia, Michael D.; Allchin, Bridget (2007), "Human evolution and culture change in the Indian subcontinent", in Michael Petraglia, Bridget Allchin, The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics, Springer, ISBN978-1-4020-5562-1
^Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015), The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c. 6500 BCE – 200 CE, Cambridge University Press Quote: ""Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different to other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800—2000 BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."
^Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "page 33: "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well."
^Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-882905-8, Quote: "(p 29) "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000 years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500 years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."
^Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, Raymond (1982), The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, p. 131, ISBN978-0-521-28550-6Quote: "During the second half of the fourth and early part of the third millennium B.C., a new development begins to become apparent in the greater Indus system, which we can now see to be a formative stage underlying the Mature Indus of the middle and late third millennium. This development seems to have involved the whole Indus system, and to a lesser extent the Indo-Iranian borderlands to its west, but largely left untouched the subcontinent east of the Indus system. (page 81)"
^Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100
^Ahmad Hasan Dani. "Guide to Historic Taxila". The National Fund for Cultural Heritage. Retrieved 15 January 2010.
^"History of Education", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
^ abScharfe, Hartmut; Bronkhorst, Johannes; Spuler, Bertold; Altenmüller, Hartwig (2002). Handbuch Der Orientalistik: India. Education in ancient India. p. 141. ISBN978-90-04-12556-8.
^Joseph Needham (1994). A selection from the writings of Joseph Needham. McFarland & Co. p. 24. ISBN978-0-89950-903-7. When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BCE they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about CE 400. - Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. p. 157. ISBN978-0-415-32919-4. In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila. - Balakrishnan Muniapan; Junaid M. Shaikh (2007). "Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilya's Arthashastra in ancient India". World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development. 3 (1): 50–61. doi:10.1504/WREMSD.2007.012130. - Radha Kumud Mookerji (1951) [reprint 1989]. Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist (2nd ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 478–479. ISBN978-81-208-0423-4.
^Andre Wink (1996). Al Hind the Making of the Indo Islamic World. Brill. p. 152. ISBN978-90-04-09249-5.
^Stubbs, John H.; Thomson, Robert G. (10 November 2016). Architectural Conservation in Asia: National Experiences and Practice. Taylor & Francis. p. 427. ISBN978-1-317-40619-8. Perhaps best known as home to Asia's earliest cities, the Harappan sites of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, Pakistan's rich history includes contributions from prominent Buddhist, Hindu, Hellenistic, Jain and Zoroastrian civilizations, as well as those connected to its Islamic heritage.
^Qureshi, M. Naeem (1999). Pan-Islam in British Indian politics: a study of the Khilafat movement, 1918–1924. Leiden [u.a.]: Brill. pp. 57, 245. ISBN978-90-04-11371-8.
^Blood, P.R. (1996). Pakistan: A Country Study. DIANE Publishing Company. p. 29. ISBN978-0-7881-3631-3. The conduct of Congress governments in the Muslim-minority provinces premanently alienated the Muslim League.
^Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 70. ISBN978-1-85109-801-9. In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan.
^Mohiuddin, Yasmin Niaz (2007). Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 71. ISBN978-1-85109-801-9. Despite the League's victory in the elections, the British did not want the partition of British India. As a last attempt to avoid it, Britain put forward the Cabinet Mission Plan, according to which India would become a federation of three large, self-governing provinces and the central government would be limited to power over foreign policy and defense, implying a weak center.
^Daiya, Kavita (2011). Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India. Temple University Press. p. 75. ISBN978-1-59213-744-2. The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India. - Singh, Amritjit; Iyer, Nalini; Gairola, Rahul K. (2016). Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics. Lexington Books. p. 14. ISBN978-1-4985-3105-4. The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered.<- br>Abraham, Taisha (2002). Women and the Politics of Violence. Har-Anand Publications. p. 131. ISBN978-81-241-0847-5. In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes', torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them. - Perspectives on Modern South Asia: A Reader in Culture, History, and ... – Kamala Visweswara. nGoogle Books.in (16 May 2011).
^Hasan, Arif; Raza, Mansoor (2009). Migration and Small Towns in Pakistan. IIED. p. 12. ISBN978-1-84369-734-3. When the British Indian Empire was partitioned in 1947, 4.7 million Sikhs and Hindus left what is today Pakistan for India, and 6.5 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan.
^Kumarasingham, Harshan (2013), THE 'TROPICAL DOMINIONS': THE APPEAL OF DOMINION STATUS IN THE DECOLONISATION OF INDIA, PAKISTAN AND CEYLON, vol. 23, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, p. 223, JSTOR23726109, Few today, including those who work on the subcontinent, recollect that India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka did not become republics the day British rule ended. Even distinguished scholars of Empire like Perry Anderson and A. G. Hopkins have made the common assumption that India naturally became a republic upon independence on 15 August 1947. Instead, all three of these South Asian states began their independent life as Realms within the British Commonwealth and mirrored the style and institutions of the Dominions of Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Though their sovereignty was in no way impaired by this seemingly ambiguous position they all held the British sovereign as their head of state who was represented in each capital by a governor- general appointed on the advice of the local prime minister. India, Pakistan and Ceylon were Realms from 1947 to 1950, 1947 to 1956 and 1948 to 1972 respectively.
^McGrath, Allen (1996). The Destruction of Pakistan's Democracy. Oxford University Press. p. 38. ISBN978-0-19-577583-9. Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them.
^Ahmed, Akbar S. (1997). Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin. Psychology Press. p. 136. ISBN978-0-415-14966-2. Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea.
^Wolpert, Stanley (2009). Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India. Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN978-0-19-974504-3. Mountbatten tried to convince Jinnah of the value of accepting him, Mountbatten, as Pakistan's first governor-general, but Jinnah refused to be moved from his determination to take that job himself.
^Ahmed, Akbar (2005). Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin. Routledge. ISBN978-1-134-75022-1. When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan if he had known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, his answer was instructive. There was no doubt in his mind about the legality or morality of his position on Pakistan. 'Most probably,' he said (1982:39).
^Hussain, Rizwan. "Pakistan". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Mawlānā Shabbīr Ahmad Usmānī, a respected Deobandī ʿālim (scholar) who was appointed to the prestigious position of Shaykh al-Islām of Pakistan in 1949, was the first to demand that Pakistan become an Islamic state. But Mawdūdī and his Jamāʿat-i Islāmī played the central part in the demand for an Islamic constitution. Mawdūdī demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an unequivocal declaration affirming the "supreme sovereignty of God" and the supremacy of the sharīʿah as the basic law of Pakistan.
^ abHussain, Rizwan. "Pakistan". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. The first important result of the combined efforts of the Jamāʿat-i Islāmī and the ʿulamāʿ was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949, whose formulation reflected compromise between traditionalists and modernists. The resolution embodied "the main principles on which the constitution of Pakistan is to be based". It declared that "sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust", that "the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed", and that "the Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accord with the teaching and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Qurʿan and Sunna". The Objectives Resolution has been reproduced as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.
^Adam Jones (2004). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 420. ISBN978-0-415-35384-7.
^ abcR. Jahan (2004). Samuel Totten (ed.). Teaching about genocide: issues, approaches, and resources. Information Age Publishing. pp. 147–148. ISBN978-1-59311-074-1.
^Haroon, Sana (2008). "The Rise of Deobandi Islam in the North-West Frontier Province and Its Implications in Colonial India and Pakistan 1914–1996". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 18 (1): 66–67. doi:10.1017/S1356186307007778. JSTOR27755911. S2CID154959326.
^Hussain, Rizwan. "Pakistan". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in its relationship with Islam: it is the only country to have been established in the name of Islam - Talbot, Ian (2 February 1984). "Jinnah and the Making of Pakistan". History Today. As British rule there drew to an end, many Muslims demanded, in the name of Islam, the creation of a separate Pakistan state.
^Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. p. 489. ISBN978-1-316-25838-5. But what is undeniable is the close association he developed with the ulama, for when he died a little over a year after Pakistan was born, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, in his funeral oration, described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. - Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. p. 489. ISBN978-1-316-25838-5. Similarly, Usmani asked Pakistanis to remember the Qaid's ceaseless message of Unity, Faith and Discipline and work to fulfil his dream to create a solid bloc of all Muslim states from Karachi to Ankara, from Pakistan to Morocco. He [Jinnah] wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies
^Haqqani, Hussain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. p. 16. ISBN978-0-87003-285-1. The first formal step toward transforming Pakistan into an Islamic ideological state was taken in March 1949 when the country's first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, presented the Objectives Resolution in the constituent assembly.
^Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India. Cambridge University Press. p. 491. ISBN978-1-316-25838-5. Khaliq drew a sharp distinction between this Islamic state and a Muslim state. He claimed that as of now Pakistan was only a Muslim state in view of the majority of its population being Muslim, and indeed could never be an Islamic state by itself. It could certainly fulfill its promise and destiny by bringing together all the believers of Islam into one political unit and it is only then that an Islamic state would be achieved.
^Haqqani, Hussain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. p. 18. ISBN978-0-87003-285-1. One of the earliest Western scholars of Pakistani politics, Keith Callard, observed that Pakistanis seemed to believe in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world: Pakistan was founded to advance the cause of Muslims. Other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the same view of the relation between religion and nationality.
^Haqqani, Hussain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. p. 18. ISBN978-0-87003-285-1. Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, however, were neither shared nor supported by the Muslim governments of the time. Nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language, or territory.
^Haqqqani, Hussain (2010). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Carnegie Endowment. p. 19. ISBN978-0-87003-285-1. Although Muslim governments were initially unsympathetic to Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, Islamists from the world over were drawn to Pakistan. Controversial figures such as the pro-Nazi former grand mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of Islamist political movements like the Arab Muslim Brotherhood became frequent visitors to the country.
^Cochrane, Iain (2009). The Causes of the Bangladesh War. Lulu.com. ISBN978-1-4452-4043-5. The social scientist, Nasim Ahmad Jawed has conducted a survey of nationalism in pre-divided Pakistan and identifies the links between religion, politics and nationalism in both wings of Pakistan. His findings are fascinating and go some way to explain the differing attitudes of West and East Pakistan to the relationship between Islam and Pakistani nationalism and how this affected the views of people in both wings, especially the views of the peoples of both wings towards each other. In 1969, Jawed conducted a survey on the type of national identity that was used by educated professional people. He found that just over 60% in the East wing professed to have a secular national identity. However, in the West wing, the same figure professed an Islamic and not a secular identity. Furthermore, the same figure in the East wing described their identity in terms of their ethnicity and not in terms of Islam. He found that the opposite was the case in the West wing where Islam was stated to be more important than ethnicity.
^Diamantides, Marinos; Gearey, Adam (2011). Islam, Law and Identity. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN978-1-136-67565-2. The Constitution of 1973 was created by a parliament that was elected in the 1970 elections. In this first ever general elections ...
^Diamantides, Marinos; Gearey, Adam (2011). Islam, Law and Identity. Routledge. p. 198. ISBN978-1-136-67565-2. The 1973 constitution also created certain institutions to channel the application and interpretation of Islam: the Council of Islamic Ideology and the Shariat Court.
^Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr (1996). Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 45–46. ISBN978-0-19-509695-8.
^Diamantides, Marinos; Gearey, Adam (2011). Islam, Law and Identity. Routledge. p. 198. ISBN978-1-136-67565-2. The Shariat judicial courts were not present in the original Constitution of 1973 and were later inserted in 1979 by General Zia-ul Haq ...
^Wynbrandt, James (2009). A Brief History of Pakistan. Facts on File. pp. 216–7. ISBN978-0-8160-6184-6. Zia, however, tried to bolster the influence of Islamic parties and the ulama on government and society.
^Syed, Jawad; Pio, Edwina; Kamran, Tahir; Zaidi, Abbas (2016). Faith-Based Violence and Deobandi Militancy in Pakistan. Springer. p. 379. ISBN978-1-349-94966-3. ... the military dictator Zia ul Haq (1977–1988) forged a strong alliance between the military and Deobani institutions and movements (e.g. the TJ).
^"Land and People". Ministry of Information, Broadcasting, and National Heritage. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
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^Richard Grimmett; Tom J. Roberts; Tim Inskipp (2009). Birds of Pakistan. A&C Black. pp. 6, 38–41, 132–136. ISBN978-0-7136-8800-9. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
^ abc"Sheet1". WWF. Archived from the original(XLS) on 15 September 2006. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
^ abHaqqani, Husain (2005). "§Chapter 3". Pakistan : between mosque and military (1. print. ed.). Washington, DC: United Book Press. ISBN978-0-87003-214-1. The trauma was extremely severe in Pakistan when the news of secession of East Pakistan as Bangladesh arrived—a psychological setback, complete and humiliating defeat that shattered the prestige of Pakistan Armed Forces.
^"Senate OIC Report"(PDF). Senate of Pakistan: Senate Foreign Relations Committee. September 2005. pp. 16–18. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 February 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2010. - "A Plea for Enlightened Moderation". The Washington Post. 1 June 2004. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
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^"G-20 Ministerial Meeting". Commerce.nic.in. Department of Commerce, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, India. 19 March 2005. Archived from the original on 1 December 2005. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
^Shahi, Abdul Sattar; foreword by Agha (2013). Pakistan's Foreign Policy, 1947–2012: A Concise History (3rd ed.). Karachi: Oxford University Press, Shahi. ISBN978-0-19-906910-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ abcAfridi, Jamal; Bajoria, Jayshree (6 July 2010). "China-Pakistan Relations". Council on Foreign Relations, China Pakistan. Archived from the original on 22 March 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
^Pasha, Sayed Abdul Muneem (2005). Islam in Pakistan's foreign policy. Global Media Publications. p. 225. ISBN978-81-88869-15-2. Pakistan's expression of solidarity was followed, after Independence, by a vigorous pursuit of bilateral relations with Muslim countries like Iran and Turkey.
^Pasha, Sayed Abdul Muneem (2005). Islam in Pakistan's foreign policy. Global Media Publications. p. 226. ISBN978-81-88869-15-2. Following Khaliquzzaman, the Ali brothers had sought to project Pakistan, with its comparatively larger manpower and military strength, as the natural leader of the Islamic world.
^Dhulipala, Venkat (2015). Creating a New Medina. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN978-1-107-05212-3. As a top ranking ML leader Khaliquzzaman declared, 'Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity'.
^Haqqani, Husain (2013). Magnificent Delusions: Pakistan, the United States, and an Epic History of Misunderstanding. PublicAffairs. pp. 20–21. ISBN978-1-61039-317-1. Within a few years the president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliq-uz-Zaman, announced that Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity. None of these developments within the new country elicited approval among Americans for the idea of India's partition ... British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced the international consensus at the time when he told the House of Commons of his hope that 'this severance may not endure.' He hoped that the proposed dominions of India and Pakistan would in course of time, come together to form one great Member State of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
^Roberts, Jeffery J. (2003). The Origins of Conflict in Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 134. ISBN978-0-275-97878-5. The following year, Choudhry Khaliquzzaman toured the Middle East, pleading for the formation of an alliance or confederation of Muslim states. The Arab states, often citing Pakistan's inability to solve its problems with Muslim neighbor Afghanistan, showed little enthusiasm ... Some saw the effort to form 'Islamistan' as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states.
^Pande, Aparna (2011). Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India. Routledge. p. 178. ISBN978-1-136-81893-6. The belief that the creation of Pakistan made Pakistan the true leader of Muslim causes around the world led Pakistan's diplomats to vigorously champion the cause of self-determination for fellow Muslims at the United Nations. Pakistan's founders, including Jinnah, supported anti-colonial movements: "Our heart and soul go out in sympathy with those who are struggling for their freedom ... If subjugation and exploitation are carried on, there will be no peace and there will be no end to wars." Pakistani efforts on behalf of Indonesia (1948), Algeria (1948–1949), Tunisia (1948–1949), Morocco (1948–1956) and Eritrea (1960–1991) were significant and initially led to close ties between these countries and Pakistan.
^Pande, Aparna (2011). Explaining Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Escaping India. Taylor & Francis. p. 159. ISBN978-1-136-81894-3. Both Saudi Arabia and Iran used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy war for the 'hearts and minds' of Pakistani Sunnis and Shias with the resultant rise in sectarian tensions in Pakistan. The rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in the 1990s further strained Pakistan-Iran relations. Pakistan's support of the Sunni Pashtun organization created problems for Shia Iran for whom a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan was a nightmare.
^Schmetzer, Uli (14 September 1998). "Iran Raises Anti-pakistan Outcry". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 5 January 2017. KARACHI, Pakistan – Iran, which has amassed 200,000 troops on the border with Afghanistan, accused Pakistan on Sunday of sending warplanes to strafe and bombard Afghanistan's last Shiite stronghold, which fell hours earlier to the Taliban, the Sunni militia now controlling the central Asian country. - Constable, Pamela (16 September 1998). "Afghanistan: Arena For a New Rivalry". The Washington Post. Retrieved 5 January 2017. Taliban officials accused Iran of providing military support to the opposition forces; Tehran radio accused Pakistan of sending its air force to bomb the city in support of the Taliban's advance and said Iran was holding Pakistan responsible for what it termed war crimes at Bamiyan. Pakistan has denied that accusation and previous allegations of direct involvement in the Afghan conflict. Also fueling the volatile situation are ethnic and religious rivalries between the Taliban, who are Sunni Muslims of Afghanistan's dominant Pashtun ethnic group, and the opposition factions, many of which represent other ethnic groups or include Shiite Muslims. Iran, a Shiite Muslim state, has a strong interest in promoting that sect; Pakistan, one of the Taliban's few international allies, is about 80 percent Sunni.
^Endrst, Jeff (8 September 1965). "Kashmir Old Headache For U.N."The Pittsburgh Press. Retrieved 15 January 2017. Former Indian Defense Minister Krishna Menon who for years influenced the decisions of late Prime Minister Nehru himself a Kashmiri-put it bluntly last March in an interview with an American newsman when he said India could never agree to a U.N. sponsored plebiscite because 'Kashmir would vote to join Pakistan, and no Indian government responsible for agreeing to the plebiscite could survive.'
^Talat Masood (2006). "Pakistan's Kashmir Policy"(PDF). Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program. p. 1. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
^"Contributors to United Nations peacekeeping operations"(PDF). United Nations. Retrieved 10 February 2017. - "Pakistan's peacekeeping role highlighted". Dawn. 24 October 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2016. Pakistan has contributed more than 160,000 troops to-date in 41 missions spread over 23 countries in almost all continents, it said. The country has remained one of the largest troop contributing countries consistently for many years.
^Abbas, Hassan (2015). Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror. Routledge. p. 148. ISBN978-1-317-46328-3. Javed Nasir confesses that despite the U.N. ban on supplying arms to the besieged Bosnians, he successfully airlifted sophisticated antitank guided missiles which turned the tide in favour of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to lift the siege. Under his leadership the ISI also got involved in supporting Chinese Muslims in Xinjiang Province, rebel Muslim groups in the Philippines, and some religious groups in Central Asia.
^Global wealth databook 2019(PDF) (Report). Credit Suisse Research Institute. October 2019. Archived from the original(PDF) on 23 October 2019. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
^Maddison, Angus (2006). The World Economy. A Millennial Perspective (Vol. 1). Historical Statistics (Vol. 2). OECD. pp. 241, 261. ISBN978-92-64-02261-4.
^Declan Walsh (18 May 2013). "Pakistan, Rusting in Its Tracks". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 May 2013. natural disasters and entrenched insurgencies, abject poverty and feudal kleptocrats, and an economy near meltdown
^"Human Development Indices"(PDF). United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports. p. 15. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 6 October 2015.
^Kazmi, Zahir (7 January 2014). "Pakistan's energy security". Express Tribune. Retrieved 23 February 2015. Special report on Energy security efforts in Pakistan
^"IAEA Publications: Pakistan Overview". IAEA, P.O. Box 100, Wagramer Strasse 5, A-1400 Vienna, Austria (Press release). IAEA Membership states. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 17 April 2012. - Associate Press of Pakistan (APP) (25 April 2011). "IAEA declares nuclear energy programme safe". Dawn Newspapers, 25 April 2011. Archived from the original on 25 June 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2012. - Dahl, Fredrik (27 September 2010). "Nuclear-armed Pakistan chairs board of U.N. atom body". Reuters, Vienna. Retrieved 17 April 2012. "Pakistan is a long-standing and "very law-abiding" member of the IAEA, got no opposition from any side at all
^Adnan, Imran (1 April 2019). "OLMT project to face further delay". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 2 April 2019. As per the direction of the apex court, he said, the civil works of the project will be completed by end of July 2019. But the project will not enter into commercial operations by August or November 2019. - "Manufacturing of orange trains starts, says Kh Hassan". The News. 26 May 2016. Retrieved 24 January 2017. Latest technology will be employed for fabricating these trains and the rolling-stock will be fully computerised, automatic and driverless.
^"Address by Prime Minister". Press Information Department (Government of Pakistan). Archived from the original(DOC) on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
^Hameed A. Khan; M. M. Qurashi; Tajammul Hussain; Irfan Hayee, eds. (April 2006). Physics in Developing Countries – Past, Present & Future(PDF). COMSATS' Series of Publications on Science and Technology. Vol. 8. Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South. p. 9. Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
^Lele, Ajey (2012). Asian Space Race: Rhetoric or Reality?. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 46. ISBN978-81-322-0733-7. Headquartered in SUPARCO headquarters, Karachi, it has been responsible directly and indirectly for the fabrication, processing and launch of the Muslim Ummah's first experimental satellite, Badr-1. It was a historical event not only for the people of Pakistan but also for the entire Muslim Ummah as it was the first satellite built by any Islamic country based on indigenous resources and manpower. - "The Launching of Badr-I". Aero Space Guide. Archived from the original on 2 February 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2011.
^Sayar, M.A. (April–June 1995). "Should We Exploit The Last Wilderness?". The Fountain Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 February 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2016. Pakistan became the first Muslim country to send an official expedition to Antarctica. Pakistan in 1992, established its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station. - "Huge Oil Deposits Located Near Coast". Economic Review. 22. 1991. To a question Dr. Farah said, Pakistan was the first country to carry out research and establish its station at the same time in Antarctica. - Farah, Abul; Rizvi, S.H. Niaz (1995). Pakistan's Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica. National Institute of Oceanography. p. 15. Pakistan's presence in Antarctica also appears imperative as none of the Muslim countries seem to be in a position to undertake research there. - Farah, Abul; Rizvi, S.H. Niaz (1995). Pakistan's Scientific Expeditions to Antarctica. National Institute of Oceanography. p. 17. We have already taken the lead amongst the Muslim countries by launching our first expedition in 1990–1991 with an investment of large funds and national talent towards Antarctic research. - "News Bulletin". National Institute of Oceanography (Pakistan). 7: 1. 1992. This makes Pakistan the first Muslim country to undertake Antarctic Expedition and to establish a research station in Antarctica.
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^Khalidi, Omar (1 January 1998). "From torrent to trickle: Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan, 1947–97". Islamic Studies. 37 (3): 339–352. JSTOR20837002.
^Rehman, Zia Ur (23 February 2015). "Identity issue haunts Karachi's Rohingya population". Dawn. Retrieved 26 December 2016. Their large-scale migration had made Karachi one of the largest Rohingya population centres outside Myanmar but afterwards the situation started turning against them.
^Jaffrey, Shumaila (12 August 2015). "How the Uighurs keep their culture alive in Pakistan". BBC. Retrieved 26 December 2016. Insa is one of a few thousand Uighur Muslims who live in Gilgit. The community is a mix of generations. Some left Xinjiang and the thriving trading town of Kashgar in 1949, while others are later arrivals. All say they were forced to leave as they were the victims of cultural and religious oppression in China.
^Istvan, Zoltan (13 March 2003). "Refugee Crisis Worsening In Western Kashmir". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2017. The refugees claim that Indian soldiers forced them out of their homes ... For Kashmiri Muslims, Pakistan appeared safer than Indian-held Kashmir ... "She was also raped by the soldiers," Ahmad said. "Many of the other female refugees were also raped."
^Curtis, Lisa; Mullick, Haider (4 May 2009). "Reviving Pakistan's Pluralist Traditions to Fight Extremism". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 31 July 2011 - a b c "Religions: Islam 96.0%, other (includes Christian and Hindu, 2% Ahmadiyyah ) 3.6%". CIA. The World Factbook on Pakistan. 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2010. - Rohan Bedi, "Have Pakistanis Forgotten Their Sufi Traditions?", International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, April 2006
^ abSohail, Riaz (2 March 2007). "Hindus feel the heat in Pakistan". BBC News. Retrieved 22 February 2011. But many Hindu families who stayed in Pakistan after partition have already lost faith and migrated to India.
^Muhammad Qasim Zaman, Islam in Pakistan: A History (Princeton UP, 2018) online review
^Khan, Nichola (2016). Cityscapes of Violence in Karachi: Publics and Counterpublics. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-086978-6. ... With a population of over 23 million Karachi is also the world's largest Muslim city, the world's seventh largest conurbation ...
^The 1998 Pakistani census states that there are 291,000 (0.22%) Ahmadis in Pakistan. However, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has boycotted the census since 1974 which renders official Pakistani figures to be inaccurate. Independent groups have estimated the Pakistani Ahmadiyya population to be somewhere between 2 million and 4 million Ahmadis. However, the 4 million figure is the most quoted figure and is approximately 2.2% of the country. See:
3 million: International Federation for Human Rights: International Fact-Finding Mission. Freedoms of Expression, of Association and of Assembly in Pakistan. Ausgabe 408/2, January 2005, S. 61 (PDF)
3–4 million: Commission on International Religious Freedom: Annual Report of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom. 2005, S. 130
^Qasmi, Ali Usman (2015). The Ahmadis and the Politics of Religious Exclusion in Pakistan. Anthem Press. p. 149. ISBN978-1-78308-425-8. Nazim-ud-Din favored an Islamic state not just out of political expediency but also because of his deep religious belief in its efficacy and practicality ... Nazim-ud-Din commented:'I do not agree that religion is a private affair of the individual nor do I agree that in an Islamic state every citizen has identical rights, no matter what his caste, creed or faith be'.
^"Pakistanis Attack 30 Hindu Temples". The New York Times. 7 December 1992. Retrieved 15 April 2011. Muslims attacked more than 30 Hindu temples across Pakistan today, and the Government of this overwhelmingly Muslim nation closed offices and schools for a day to protest the destruction of a mosque in India.
^Husain, Irfan (27 August 2012). "Faith in decline". Dawn, Irfan. Archived from the original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2012. Interestingly, and somewhat intriguingly, 2 per cent of the Pakistanis surveyed see themselves as atheists, up from 1pc in 2005.
^Amit Baruah; R. Padmanabhan (6 September 1997). "The stilled voice". Frontline. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
^Annemarie Schimmel (15 December 2004). "Iqbal, Muhammad". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 1 January 2012. - Shafique, Nadeem. "Global Apprecaition of Allama Iqbal"(PDF). Journal of Research, Faculty of Languages and Islamic Studies. Bahauddin Zakariya University. pp. 47–49. Archived from the original(PDF) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 1 January 2012. - Iqbal Academy (26 May 2006). "Allama Iqbal – Biography". Archived from the original(PHP) on 19 November 2010. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
^Goodwin, William (2002). Pakistan. Lucent Books. p. 79. ISBN978-1-59018-218-5. Pakistani food is similar to that of northern India, with a splash of Middle Eastern influence derived from other Muslim cultures over the centuries.
^Kathleen W. Deady (2001). Countries of the world :Pakistan. Capstone Press. pp. 13–15. ISBN978-0-7368-0815-6. - American Geriatrics Society. Ethnogeriatrics Committee (2006). Doorway thoughts: cross-cultural health care for older adults. Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 119–120. ISBN978-0-7637-4355-0.
^Waraich, Omar (11 February 2014). "Where soccer gets made". The Far Post. Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2021.
^The precise time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period.[51]
Allchin, F. Raymond (1993). "The Urban Position of Taxila and Its Place in Northwest India-Pakistan". Studies in the History of Art. 31: 69–81. JSTOR42620473.
Stephen Philip Cohen (2006), The Idea of Pakistan, Brookings Institution Press, ISBN978-0-8157-1503-0
Anatol Lieven (2012), Pakistan: A Hard Country, PublicAffairs, ISBN978-1-61039-145-0
Hafeez Malik (2006), The Encyclopedia of Pakistan, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-597735-6
Iftikhar Malik (2005), Culture and Customs of Pakistan (Culture and Customs of Asia), Greenwood, ISBN978-0-313-33126-8
Matthew McCartney (2011), Pakistan: The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–2009, Routledge, ISBN978-0-415-57747-2
Masood Ashraf Raja (2010), Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0-19-547811-2
أنكا بارنا معلومات شخصية الميلاد 14 مايو 1977 (العمر 46 سنة)كلوج نابوكا الطول 1.75 م (5 قدم 9 بوصة) الإقامة نورنبرغ الجنسية ألمانيا الوزن 55 كيلوغرام استعمال اليد اليد اليسرى الحياة العملية الفرق منتخب ألمانيا لكأس فيد بداية الاحتراف 1991 التقاعد 2005 مجموع الجوائز
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Private college in New Delhi, India This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: Maharaja Surajmal Institute – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove t…
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1580–1898 Spanish possession in the Caribbean This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Captaincy General of Puerto Rico – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Captaincy General of Puerto RicoCapitanía General de Puerto Rico1580–…
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Reservoir in Contra Costa County, CaliforniaBriones ReservoirBriones ReservoirShow map of CaliforniaBriones ReservoirShow map of the United StatesLocationBriones Hills,Contra Costa County, CaliforniaCoordinates37°54′54″N 122°12′18″W / 37.915°N 122.205°W / 37.915; -122.205Lake typeReservoirPrimary outflowsTerminal (evaporation)Catchment area22 km2 (8.5 sq mi)Basin countriesUnited StatesWater volume60,510 acre⋅ft (74,640,000 m3)Re…