Since 7 September 2009.[10] Although driving is on the left side of the roadway centre line, Samoa allows cars with steering wheels on either the left or the right side of the vehicle to use the roads.
Samoa is a unitaryparliamentary democracy with 11 administrative divisions. It is a sovereign state and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Western Samoa was admitted to the United Nations on 15 December 1976.[15] Because of the Samoans' seafaring skills, pre-20th-century European explorers referred to the entire island group (which includes American Samoa) as the "Navigator Islands".[16][17] The country was a colony of the German Empire from 1899 to 1915, then came under a joint British and New Zealand colonial administration until 1 January 1962, when it became independent.
Samoa was discovered and settled by the Lapita people (Austronesian people who spoke Oceanic languages), who travelled from Island Melanesia. The earliest human remains found in Samoa are dated to between roughly 2,900 and 3,500 years ago. The remains were discovered at a Lapita site at Mulifanua, and the scientists' findings were published in 1974.[18] The Samoans' origins have been studied in modern times through scientific research on Polynesian genetics, linguistics and anthropology. Although this research is ongoing, a number of theories have been proposed. One theory is that the original Samoans were Austronesians who arrived during a final period of eastward expansion of the Lapita peoples out of Southeast Asia and Melanesia between 2,500 and 1,500 BCE.[19]
Intimate sociocultural and genetic ties were maintained between Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga, and the archaeological record supports oral tradition and native genealogies that indicate interisland voyaging and intermarriage among precolonial Samoans, Fijians, and Tongans. Notable figures in Samoan history included the Tui Manu'a line, Queen Salamasina, King Fonoti and the four tama-a-aiga: Malietoa, Tupua Tamasese, Mata'afa, and Tuimalealiifano. Nafanua was a famous woman warrior who was deified in ancient Samoan religion and whose patronage was highly sought after by successive Samoan rulers.[20]
Today, all of Samoa is united under its two principal royal families: the Sā Malietoa of the ancient Malietoa lineage that defeated the Tongans in the 13th century; and the Sā Tupua, Queen Salamasina's descendants and heirs who ruled Samoa in the centuries that followed her reign. Within these two principal lineages are the four highest titles of Samoa - the elder titles of Malietoa and Tupua Tamasese of antiquity and the newer Mata'afa and Tuimalealiifano titles, which rose to prominence in 19th-century wars that preceded the colonial period.[20] These four titles form the apex of the Samoan matai system as it stands today.
Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century. Jacob Roggeveen, a Dutchman, was the first known non-Polynesian to sight the Samoan islands in 1722. This visit was followed by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville, who named them the Navigator Islands in 1768. Contact was limited before the 1830s, which is when English missionaries of the London Missionary Society, whalers, and traders began arriving.[21]
19th century
Visits by American trading and whaling vessels were important in the early economic development of Samoa. The Salem brig Roscoe (Captain Benjamin Vanderford), in October 1821, was the first American trading vessel known to have called, and the Maro (Captain Richard Macy) of Nantucket, in 1824, was the first recorded United States whaler at Samoa.[22] The whalers came for fresh drinking water, firewood, provisions and, later, for recruiting local men to serve as crewmen on their ships. The last recorded whaler visitor was the Governor Morton in 1870.[23]
Christian missionary work in Samoa began in 1830 when John Williams of the London Missionary Society arrived in Sapapali'i from the Cook Islands and Tahiti.[24] According to Barbara A. West, "The Samoans were also known to engage in 'headhunting', a ritual of war in which a warrior took the head of his slain opponent to give to his leader, thus proving his bravery."[25]
In A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa (1892), Robert Louis Stevenson details the activities of the great powers battling for influence in Samoa – the United States, Germany and Britain – and the political machinations of the various Samoan factions within their indigenous political system.[26][27] Even as they descended into ever greater interclan warfare, what most alarmed Stevenson was the Samoans' economic innocence. In 1894, just months before his death, he addressed the island chiefs:
There is but one way to defend Samoa. Hear it before it is too late. It is to make roads, and gardens, and care for your trees, and sell their produce wisely, and, in one word, to occupy and use your country... if you do not occupy and use your country, others will. It will not continue to be yours or your children's, if you occupy it for nothing. You and your children will in that case be cast out into outer darkness".
He had "seen these judgments of God" in Hawaii, where abandoned native churches stood like tombstones "over a grave, in the midst of the white men's sugar fields".[28]
The Germans, in particular, began to show great commercial interest in the Samoan Islands, especially on the island of Upolu, where German firms monopolised copra and cocoa bean processing. The United States laid its own claim, based on commercial shipping interests in Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and Pago Pago Bay in eastern Samoa, and forced alliances, most conspicuously on the islands of Tutuila and Manu'a, which became American Samoa.
Britain also sent troops to protect British business enterprise, harbour rights, and consulate office. This was followed by an eight-year civil war, during which each of the three powers supplied arms, training and in some cases combat troops to the warring Samoan parties. The Samoan crisis came to a critical juncture in March 1889 when all three colonial contenders sent warships into Apia harbour, and a larger-scale war seemed imminent. A massive storm on 15 March 1889 damaged or destroyed the warships, ending the military conflict.[29]
The Second Samoan Civil War reached a head in 1898 when Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States were locked in dispute over who should control the Samoan Islands. The Siege of Apia occurred in March 1899. Samoan forces loyal to Prince Tanu were besieged by a larger force of Samoan rebels loyal to Mata'afa Iosefo. Supporting Prince Tanu were landing parties from four British and American warships. After several days of fighting, the Samoan rebels were finally defeated.[30]
American and British warships shelled Apia on 15 March 1899, including the USS Philadelphia. Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States quickly resolved to end the hostilities and divided the island chain at the Tripartite Convention of 1899, signed at Washington on 2 December 1899 with ratifications exchanged on 16 February 1900.[31][32]
The eastern island-group became a territory of the United States (the Tutuila Islands in 1900 and officially Manu'a in 1904) and was known as American Samoa. The western islands, by far the greater landmass, became German Samoa. The United Kingdom had vacated all claims in Samoa and in return received (1) termination of German rights in Tonga, (2) all of the Solomon Islands south of Bougainville, and (3) territorial alignments in West Africa.[33]
The German colonial administration governed on the principle that "there was only one government in the islands."[35] Thus, there was no Samoan Tupu (king), nor an alii sili (similar to a governor), but two Fautua (advisors) were appointed by the colonial government. Tumua and Pule (traditional governments of Upolu and Savai'i) were for a time silent; all decisions on matters affecting lands and titles were under the control of the colonial Governor.
In the first month of World War I, on 29 August 1914, troops of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force landed unopposed on Upolu and seized control from the German authorities, following a request by Great Britain for New Zealand to perform this "great and urgent imperial service."[36]
From the end of World War I until 1962, New Zealand controlled Western Samoa as a Class C Mandate under trusteeship through the League of Nations,[32][37] then through the United Nations. Between 1919 and 1962, Samoa was administered by the Department of External Affairs, a government department which had been specially created to oversee New Zealand's Island Territories and Samoa.[38] In 1943, this department was renamed the Department of Island Territories after a separate Department of External Affairs was created to conduct New Zealand's foreign affairs.[39] During the period of New Zealand control, their administrators were responsible for two major incidents.
In 1918, during the final stages of World War I, the Spanish flu had taken its toll, spreading rapidly from country to country. On Samoa, there had been no epidemic of pneumonic influenza in Western Samoa before the arrival of the SS Talune from Auckland on 7 November 1918. The NZ administration allowed the ship to berth in breach of quarantine; within seven days of this ship's arrival, influenza became epidemic in Upolu and then spread rapidly throughout the rest of the territory.[41] Samoa suffered the most of all Pacific islands, with 90% of the population infected; 30% of adult men, 22% of adult women and 10% of children died.[42] The cause of the epidemic was confirmed in 1919 by a Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Epidemic concluded that there had been no epidemic of pneumonic influenza in Western Samoa before the arrival of the Talune from Auckland on 7 November 1918.[41]
The pandemic undermined Samoan confidence in New Zealand's administrative capacity and competence.[32] Some Samoans asked that the rule of the islands be transferred to the Americans or the British.[32]
Mau movement
The second major incident arose out of an initially peaceful protest by the Mau (which literally translates as "strongly held opinion"), a non-violent popular pro-independence movement which had its beginnings in the early 1900s on Savai'i, led by Lauaki Namulauulu Mamoe, an orator chief deposed by Solf. In 1909, Lauaki was exiled to Saipan and died en route back to Samoa in 1915.
By 1918, Western Samoa had a population of some 38,000 Samoans and 1,500 Europeans.[43]
However, native Samoans greatly resented New Zealand's colonial rule, and blamed inflation and the catastrophic 1918 flu epidemic on its misrule.[44] By the late 1920s the resistance movement against colonial rule had gathered widespread support. One of the Mau leaders was Olaf Frederick Nelson, a half Samoan and half Swedish merchant.[45] Nelson was eventually exiled during the late 1920s and early 1930s, but he continued to assist the organisation financially and politically. In accordance with the Mau's non-violent philosophy, the newly elected leader, High Chief Tupua Tamasese Lealofi, led his fellow uniformed Mau in a peaceful demonstration in downtown Apia on 28 December 1929.[46]
The New Zealand police attempted to arrest one of the leaders in the demonstration. When he resisted, a struggle developed between the police and the Mau. The officers began to fire randomly into the crowd and used a Lewis machine gun, mounted in preparation for the demonstration, to disperse the demonstrators.[47] Mau leader and paramount chief Tupua Tamasese Lealofi III was shot from behind and killed while trying to bring calm and order to the Mau demonstrators. Ten others died that day and approximately 50 were injured by gunshot wounds and police batons.[48] That day would come to be known in Samoa as Black Saturday.
On 13 January 1930, the New Zealand authorities banned the organisation. As many as 1500 Mau men took to the bush, pursued by an armed force of 150 marines and seamen from the light cruiserHMS Dunedin, and 50 military police. Villages were raided, often at night and with fixed bayonets. In March, through the mediation of local Europeans and missionaries, Mau leaders met New Zealand's Minister of Defence and agreed to disperse.[49]
Supporters of the Mau continued to be arrested, so women came to the fore rallying supporters and staging demonstrations. The political stalemate was broken following the victory of the Labour Party in New Zealand's 1935 general election. A 'goodwill mission' to Apia in June 1936 recognised the Mau as a legitimate political organisation, and Olaf Nelson was allowed to return from exile.[49] In September 1936, Samoans exercised for the first time the right to elect the members of the advisory Fono of Faipule,[50] with representatives of the Mau movement winning 31 of the 39 seats.[51]
Independence
As Western Samoa (1962–1997)
After repeated efforts by the Samoan independence movement, the New Zealand Western Samoa Act 1961 of 24 November 1961 terminated the Trusteeship Agreement and granted the country independence as the Independent State of Western Samoa, effective on 1 January 1962.[52][53] Western Samoa, the first small-island country in the Pacific to become independent, signed a Treaty of Friendship with New Zealand later in 1962. Western Samoa joined the Commonwealth of Nations on 28 August 1970. While independence was achieved at the beginning of January, Samoa annually celebrates 1 June as its independence day.[54][55]
On 15 December 1976, Western Samoa was admitted to the United Nations as the 147th member state. It asked to be referred to in the United Nations as the Independent State of Samoa.[56]
Travel writer Paul Theroux noted marked differences between the societies in Western Samoa and American Samoa in 1992.[57]
As Samoa (1997 onwards)
On 4 July 1997 the government amended the constitution to change the name of the country from Western Samoa to Samoa,[58] the name it had been called by in the United Nations since it joined.[59]American Samoa protested against the name change, asserting that it diminished its own identity.[59]
In 2002, New Zealand prime minister Helen Clark formally apologised for New Zealand's role in the Spanish influenza outbreak in 1918 that killed over a quarter of Samoa's population and for the Black Saturday killings in 1929.[60][61]
On 7 September 2009, the government changed the rule of the road from right to left, in common with most other Commonwealth countries - most notably countries in the region such as Australia and New Zealand, home to large numbers of Samoans.[62] This made Samoa the first country in the 21st century to switch to driving on the left.[63]
At the end of December 2011, Samoa changed its time zone offset from UTC−11 to UTC+13, effectively jumping forward by one day, omitting Friday, 30 December from the local calendar. This also had the effect of changing the shape of the International Date Line, moving it to the east of the territory.[64] This change aimed to help the nation boost its economy in doing business with Australia and New Zealand. Before this change, Samoa was 21 hours behind Sydney, but the change means it is now three hours ahead. The previous time zone, implemented on 4 July 1892, operated in line with American traders based in California.[65] In October 2021, Samoa ceased daylight saving time.[66]
In June 2017, Parliament amended Article 1 of the Samoan Constitution to make Christianity the state religion.[2][68]
In September 2019, with a state of emergency, Samoa declared a measles outbreak, which resulted in the deaths of 83 people. Following the outbreak, the government imposed a curfew in December later during the same year.
In May 2021, Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa became Samoa's first female prime minister. Mataʻafa's FAST party narrowly won the election, ending the rule of long-term Prime Minister Tuila'epa Sa'ilele Malielegaoi of the Human Rights Protection Party (HRPP),[69] although the constitutional crisis complicated and delayed this. On 24 May 2021, she was sworn in as the new prime minister, though it was not until July that the Supreme Court ruled that her swearing-in was legal, thus ending the constitutional crisis and bringing an end to Tuila'epa's 22-year premiership. The FAST party's success in the 2021 election and subsequent court rulings also ended nearly four decades of HRPP rule.[70]
The 1960 constitution, which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern of parliamentary democracy, modified to take account of Samoan customs.[72] The national modern Government of Samoa is referred to as the Malo.
The unicameral legislature (the Fono) consists of 51 members serving 5-year terms. Forty-nine are matai title-holders elected from territorial districts by Samoans; the other two are chosen by non-Samoans with no chiefly affiliation on separate electoral rolls. At least, 10% of the MPs are women.[75] Universal suffrage was adopted in 1990, but only chiefs (matai) may stand for election to the Samoan seats. There are more than 25,000 matais in the country, about 5% of whom are women.[76] The prime minister, chosen by a majority in the Fono, is appointed by the head of state to form a government. The prime minister's choices for the 12 cabinet positions are appointed by the head of state, subject to the continuing confidence of the Fono.
Samoa comprises eleven itūmālō (political districts). These are the traditional eleven districts which predate European arrival. Each district has its own constitutional foundation (fa'avae) based on the traditional order of title precedence found in each district's faalupega (traditional salutations).[77] The capital village of each district administers and coordinates the affairs of the district and confers each district's paramount title, amongst other responsibilities.
For example:
A'ana has its capital at Leulumoega. The paramount 'tama-a-'aiga' (royal lineage) title of A'ana is Tuimalealiifano. The paramount pāpā title of A'ana is the Tui A'ana. The orator group which confers this title – the Faleiva (House of Nine) – is based at Leulumoega.
Ātua has its capital at Lufilufi. The paramount 'tama-a-'aiga' (royal lineage) titles of Ātua are Tupua Tamasese (based in Falefa and Salani) and Mata'afa (based in Amaile and Lotofaga). The two main political families who confer the respective titles are 'Aiga Sā Fenunuivao and 'Aiga Sā Levālasi. The paramount pāpā title of Ātua is the Tui Ātua. The orator group which confers this title - the Faleono (House of Six) - is based at Lufilufi.
Tuamasaga has its capital at Afega. The paramount 'tama-a-'aiga' (royal lineage) title of Tuamasaga is the Malietoa title, based in Malie. The main political family that confers the Malietoa title is 'Aiga Sā Malietoa, with Auimatagi as the main speaker for the family. The paramount pāpā titles of Tuamasaga are Gatoaitele (conferred by Afega) and Vaetamasoalii (conferred by Safata).[27]
Major areas of concern include the under-representation of women, domestic violence and poor prison conditions. Homosexual acts are illegal in Samoa.[78]
State religion
In June 2017, an Act was passed changing the country's constitution to include a reference to the Trinity. As amended, Article 1 of the Samoan Constitution states that "Samoa is a Christian nation founded on God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit".[79] According to The Diplomat, "What Samoa has done is shift references to Christianity into the body of the constitution, giving the text far more potential to be used in legal processes."[80] The preamble to the constitution already described the country as "an independent State based on Christian principles and Samoan custom and traditions."[80]
Officers of the national police force, the Samoa Police Service, are regularly unarmed, but may be armed in exceptional circumstances with ministerial approval.[82] As of 2022 there are between 900 and 1,100 police officers in Samoa.
Samoa lies south of the equator, about halfway between Hawaii and New Zealand, in the Polynesian region of the Pacific Ocean. The total land area is 2,842 km2 (1,097 sq mi),[83] consisting of the two large islands of Upolu and Savai'i (which together account for 99% of the total land area) and eight small islets.
Nu'usafe'e, which is less than 1 ha (2+1⁄2 acres) in area and lies about 1.4 km (0.87 mi) off the south coast of Upolu at the village of Vaovai
The main island of Upolu is home to nearly three-quarters of Samoa's population, and to the capital city, Apia.
The Samoan islands result geologically from volcanism, originating with the Samoa hotspot, which probably results from a mantle plume.[85][86] While all of the islands have volcanic origins, only Savai'i, the westernmost island in Samoa, remains volcanically active, with the most recent eruptions at Mt Matavanu (1905–1911), Mata o le Afi (1902) and Mauga Afi (1725). The highest point in Samoa is Mt Silisili, at 1,858 m (6,096 ft). The Saleaula lava fields situated on the central north coast of Savai'i result from the Mt Matavanu eruptions, which left 50 km2 (19 sq mi) of solidified lava.[87]
Savai'i is the largest of the Samoan islands and the sixth-largest Polynesian island (after New Zealand's North, South and Stewart Islands and the Hawaiian islands of Hawaiʻi and Maui). The population of Savai'i is 42,000 people.
Climate
Samoa has an equatorial climate, with an average annual temperature of 26.5 °C (79.7 °F) and a main rainy season from November to April, although heavy rain may fall in any month.[88]
Samoa forms part of the Samoan tropical moist forests ecoregion.[90] Since human habitation began, about 80% of the lowland rainforests have disappeared. Within the ecoregion about 28% of plants and 84% of land birds are endemic.[91]
The Central Bank of Samoa issues and regulates Samoa's currency, the Samoan tālā.[94]
The economy of Samoa has traditionally depended on agriculture and fishing at the local level. In modern times, development aid, private family remittances from overseas, and agricultural exports have become key factors in the nation's economy. Agriculture employs two-thirds of the labour force and furnishes 90% of exports, featuring coconut cream, coconut oil, noni (juice of the nonu fruit, as it is known in Samoan), and copra.[1]
Sixty percent of Samoa's electricity comes from renewable hydro, solar, and wind sources, with the remainder produced by diesel generators. The Electric Power Corporation set a goal of 100% renewable energy by 2021.[95]
Agriculture
In the period before German colonisation (from the late 19th century), Samoa produced mostly copra. German merchants and settlers were active in introducing large-scale plantation operations and in developing new industries, notably cocoa beans and rubber, relying on imported labourers from China and Melanesia. When the value of natural rubber fell drastically, about the end of the Great War (World War I) in 1918, the New Zealand government encouraged the production of bananas, for which there is a large market in New Zealand.[96]
Because of variations in altitude, Samoa can cultivate a large range of tropical and subtropical crops. Land is not generally available to outside interests. Of the total land area of 2,934 km2 (725,000 acres), about 24.4% is in permanent crops and another 21.2% is arable. About 4.4% is Western Samoan Trust Estates Corporation (WSTEC).[97]
The staple products of Samoa are copra (dried coconut meat), cocoa beans (for chocolate), rubber, and bananas.[98] The annual production of both bananas and copra has been[when?] in the range of 13,000–15,000 tonnes (14,000–17,000 tons). If the coconut rhinoceros beetle in Samoa were eradicated, Samoa could produce in excess of 40,000 tonnes (44,000 tons) of copra. Samoan cocoa beans are of very high quality and are used in fine New Zealand chocolates. Most are Criollo-Forastero hybrids. Coffee grows well, but production has been uneven. WESTEC is the biggest coffee producer.
Other agricultural industries have proven less successful. Sugarcane production was originally established by Germans in the early 20th century. Old train tracks for transporting cane can be seen at some plantations east of Apia. Pineapples grow well in Samoa, but have not moved beyond local consumption to become a major export.[99][100]
A measles outbreak began in October 2019. By the time the outbreak subsided in early January, the number of deaths reached 83 (0.31 per 1,000, based on a population of 201,316[101]) and over 4,460 cases (2.2% of the population) of measles in Samoa,[102][103] mainly children under four years old, and 10 reported cases in Fiji.[104]
Samoan (Gagana Fa'asāmoa) and English are the official languages. Including second-language speakers, there are more speakers of Samoan than English in Samoa.[105]Samoan Sign Language is also commonly used among the deaf population of Samoa. To emphasize the importance of full inclusion with sign language, elementary Samoan Sign Language was taught to members of the Samoa Police Service, Red Cross Society, and public during the 2017 International Week of the Deaf.[106]
Education in Samoa has proved to be effective as a 2012 UNESCO report stated that 99 per cent of Samoan adults are literate.[109]
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI)[110] finds that Samoa is fulfilling only 88.0% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income.[111] HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration Samoa's income level, the nation is achieving 97.7% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education but only 78.3% for secondary education.[111]
Faʻa Sāmoa, or the traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. As one of the oldest Polynesian cultures, the fa'a Samoa developed over a period of 3,000 years, withstanding centuries of European influence to maintain its historical customs, social and political systems, and language. Cultural customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal of matai chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven 'ie toga.[112][113]
Samoan mythology includes many gods with creation stories and figures of legend such as Tagaloa and the goddess of war Nafanua, the daughter of Saveasi'uleo, ruler of the spirit realm Pulotu. Other legends include the well known story of Sina and the Eel which explains the origins of the first coconut tree.
Some Samoans are spiritual and religious, and have subtly adapted the dominant religion of Christianity to 'fit in' with fa'a Samoa and vice versa. Ancient beliefs continue to co-exist side by side with Christianity, particularly in regard to the traditional customs and rituals of fa'a Samoa. The Samoan culture is centred on the principle of vāfealoa'i, the relationships between people. These relationships are based on respect, or fa'aaloalo. When Christianity was introduced in Samoa, most Samoan people converted. Currently 98% of the population identify themselves as Christian.[114]
Some Samoans live a communal way of life, participating in activities collectively. Examples of this are the traditional Samoan fale (houses) which are open with no walls, using blinds made of coconut palm fronds during the night or bad weather.
The Samoan siva dance has unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and tells a story, although the Samoan male dances can be more snappy.[115] The sasa is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid synchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums (pate) or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the fa'ataupati or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. This is believed to have been derived from slapping insects on the body.[citation needed]
The form and construction of traditional architecture of Samoa was a specialised skill by Tufuga fai fale that was also linked to other cultural artforms.
As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawaiian, Tahitian and Māori) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos. For males, it is called the Pe'a and consists of intricate and geometrical patterns tattooed that cover areas from the knees up towards the ribs. A male who possesses such a tatau is called a soga'imiti. A Samoan girl or teine is given a malu, which covers the area from just below her knees to her upper thighs.[116]
The late John Kneubuhl, born in American Samoa, was an accomplished playwright and screenwriter and writer. His play Think of Garden premiered in Auckland in 1993 a year after his death, it was directed by Nathaniel Lees, is set in 1929 and is about Samoa's struggle for independence.[119][120]
Sia Figiel won the 1997 Commonwealth Writers' Prize for fiction in the south-east Asia/South Pacific region with her novel "Where We Once Belonged".
Tusiata Avia is a performance poet. Her first book of poetry Wild Dogs Under My Skirt was published by Victoria University Press in 2004.
Dan Taulapapa McMullin is an artist and writer.
In music, popular local bands include The Five Stars, Penina o Tiafau and Punialava'a.
The Yandall Sisters' cover of the song Sweet Inspiration reached number one on the New Zealand charts in 1974.
King Kapisi was the first hip hop artist to receive the prestigious New Zealand APRA Silver Scroll Award in 1999 for his song Reverse Resistance. The music video for Reverse Resistance was filmed in Savai'i at his villages.
Other successful Samoan hip hop artists include rapper Scribe, Dei Hamo, Savage and Tha Feelstyle whose music video Suamalie was filmed in Samoa.
Lemi Ponifasio is a director and choreographer who is prominent internationally with his dance Company MAU.[121]Neil Ieremia's company Black Grace has also received international acclaim with tours to Europe and New York.
Hip hop has had a significant impact on Samoan culture. According to Katerina Martina Teaiwa, PhD from the University of Hawaii at Manoa, "Hip hop culture in particular is popular amongst Samoan youth."[122] As in many other countries, hip hop music is popular. In addition, the integration of hip hop elements into Samoan tradition also "testifies to the transferability of the dance forms themselves," and to the "circuits through which people and all their embodied knowledge travel."[123] Dance both in its traditional form and its more modern forms has remained a central cultural currency to Samoans, especially youths.[122]
Director Sima Urale is a filmmaker. Urale's short film O Tamaiti won the prestigious Best Short Film at the Venice Film Festival in 1996. Her first feature film Apron Strings opened the 2008 NZ International Film Festival. The feature film Siones Wedding, co-written by Oscar Kightley, was financially successful following premieres in Auckland and Apia. The 2011 film The Orator was the first ever fully Samoan film, shot in Samoa in the Samoan language with a Samoan cast telling a uniquely Samoan story. Written and directed by Tusi Tamasese, it received much critical acclaim and attention at film festivals throughout the world.
The main sports played in Samoa are rugby union, Samoan cricket and netball. Rugby union is the national football code of Samoa. In Samoan villages, volleyball is also popular.
At club level, there is the National Provincial Championship and Pacific Rugby Cup. They also took home the cup at Wellington and the Hong Kong Rugby Sevens in 2007—for which the Prime Minister of Samoa, also chairman of the national rugby union, Tuila’epa Sa’ilele Malielegaoi, declared a national holiday. They were also the IRB World Sevens Series Champions in 2010 capping a year of achievement for the Samoans, following wins in the US, Australia, Hong Kong and Scotland Sevens tournaments.
Prominent Samoan players include Pat Lam and Brian Lima. In addition, many Samoans have played for or are playing for New Zealand.
The national rugby league team reached the quarter finals of the 2013 Rugby League World Cup, the team comprising players from the NRL and Super League plus domestic players. Many Samoans and New Zealanders or Australians of Samoan descent play in the Super League and National Leagues in Britain, including Francis Meli, Ta'ane Lavulavu of Workington Town, Maurie Fa'asavalu of St Helens, David Fatialofa of Whitehaven and Setaimata Sa, who signed with London Irish rugby club. Other noteworthy players from NZ and Australia have represented the Samoan National team. The 2011 domestic Samoan rugby league competition contained 10 teams with plans to expand to 12 in 2012.[130][failed verification][131] Samoa reached the final of the 2021 Rugby League World Cup to face Australia.
American football is occasionally played in Samoa, reflecting its wide popularity in American Samoa, where the sport is played under high school sanction. About 30 ethnic Samoans, many from American Samoa, currently play in the National Football League. A 2002 article from ESPN estimated that a Samoan male (either an American Samoan or a Samoan living in the mainland United States) is 40 times more likely to play in the NFL than a non-Samoan American.[132]
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^Schellinger, Paul; Salkin, Robert, eds. (1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places, Volume 5: Asia and Oceania. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 724. ISBN1-884964-04-4.
^Rhys Richards, (1992), Samoa's forgotten whaling heritage; American whaling in Samoan waters 1824-1878, Wellington, Lithographic Services, pp.18-20.
^Langdon, Robert (1984) Where the whalers went; an index to the Pacific ports and islands visited by American whalers (and some other ships) in the 19th century, Canberra, Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, p.215. ISBN086784471X
^Mains, P. John; McCarty, Louis Philippe (1906). The Statistician and Economist: Volume 23. p. 249
^Ryden, George Herbert. The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa. New York: Octagon Books, 1975. (Reprint by special arrangement with Yale University Press. Originally published at New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928), p. 574
^Lewthwaite, Gordon R. "Life, Land and Agriculture to Mid-Century," in Western Samoa. Edited by James W. Fox and Kenneth Brailey Cumberland. Christchurch, New Zealand: Whitcomb & Tombs Ltd. 1962, p. 148
^"External Affairs Bill", in New Zealand Parliamentary Debates, Vol. 185 (3 October–5 November 1919), p.337.
^Templeton, Malcolm (1993). An Eye, An Ear, and a Voice: 50 Years in New Zealand's External Relations, 1943–1993. Wellington: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. p. 1.
^Tomkins, Sandra M. (1992). "The Influenza Epidemic of 1918-19 in Western Samoa". Journal of Pacific History. 27 (2): 181–197. doi:10.1080/00223349208572706. JSTOR25169127.
^"About Us". samoaland.gov.ws. Archived from the original on 14 November 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2021.
^Twining-Ward, Louise; Butler, Richard (2002). "Implementing STD on a small island: Development and use of sustainable tourism development indicators in Samoa". Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 10 (5): 363–387. doi:10.1080/09669580208667174. S2CID154442062.
^Henderson, April K. "Dancing Between Islands: Hip Hop and the Samoan Diaspora." In The Vinyl Ain't Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, 180–199. London; Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2000
Meleisea, Malama. The Making of Modern Samoa: Traditional Authority and Colonial Administration in the Modern History of Western Samoa. (Suva, 1987) Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific.
Schnee, Dr. Heinrich (former Deputy Governor of German Samoa and last Governor of German East Africa). 1926. German Colonization, Past and Future: The Truth about the German Colonies. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Eustis, Nelson. [1979] 1980. Aggie Grey of Samoa. Adelaide, South Australia: Hobby Investments. ISBN0-9595609-0-4.
Stevenson, Robert Louis. A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa. BiblioBazaar. ISBN978-1-4264-0754-3.
Mead, Margaret. 1928, Coming of Age in Samoa: A Study of Adolescence and Sex in Primitive Societies.
Freeman, Derek. 1983. Margaret Mead in Samoa: the Making and Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth.
Urmenyhazi Attila. 2013 Samoan & Marquesan Life in Oceania: a probing travelogue. ISBN9780646909127 – NLA6377055.
Mallon, Sean. 2002. Samoan Art and Artists. O Measina a Samoa. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN0-8248-2675-2
Town in Connecticut, United StatesChester, ConnecticutTownTown of ChesterThe Old Town Hall Seal Middlesex County and Connecticut Lower Connecticut River Valley Planning Region and ConnecticutShow ChesterShow ConnecticutShow the United StatesCoordinates: 41°24′08″N 72°28′57″W / 41.40222°N 72.48250°W / 41.40222; -72.48250Country United StatesU.S. state ConnecticutCountyMiddlesexRegionLower CT River ValleyIncorporated1836Government •…
Nota: Para a banda brasileira de mesmo nome, veja Delicatessen (banda brasileira). Para outros significados, veja Delicatessen. Delicatessen foi uma banda de indie-rock formada em Leicester, Inglaterra no começo da década de 1990, e tinha por integrantes Neil Carlill (vocal, guitarra), Craig Bown (guitarra, flauta), Pete Capewell (baixo) e Stuart Dayman (teclados). Gravou três álbuns e três singles antes de sua separação, em 1998.[1] Discografia Singles Inviting Both Sisters to …
هذه المقالة بحاجة لصندوق معلومات. فضلًا ساعد في تحسين هذه المقالة بإضافة صندوق معلومات مخصص إليها. يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (ديسمبر 2018) هذه الم
William Merritt Chase - Retrato de Julian Onderdonk (1901) (Robert) Julian Onderdonk (30 de julio de 1882-27 de octubre de 1922) fue un pintor impresionista estadounidense, al que se ha llamado el padre de la pintura de Texas. Primeros años Julian Onderdonk - Sunlight and Shadow Julian Onderdonk nació en San Antonio, Texas, hijo de Robert Jenkins Onderdonk, pintor, y Emily Gould. Era hermano de Eleanor Onderdonk, que también fue una destacada pintora, escultora y administradora de arte …
United States Navy destroyer 1944–1981 History United States NameRobert K. Huntington NamesakeRobert Kingsbury Huntington BuilderTodd Pacific Shipyards, Seattle Laid down29 February 1944 Launched5 December 1944 Commissioned3 March 1945 Decommissioned31 October 1973 Stricken31 October 1973 Fateto Venezuelan Navy 31 October 1973 Venezuela NameFalcon Acquired31 October 1973 Stricken1981 FateScrapped in 1981 General characteristics Class and typeAllen M. Sumner-class destroyer Displacement2,200 to…
Untuk orang lain dengan nama yang sama, lihat David McCallum (disambiguasi). David McCallumMcCallum pada 1982LahirDavid Keith McCallum(1933-09-19)19 September 1933Glasgow, SkotlandiaMeninggal25 September 2023(2023-09-25) (umur 90)New York City, A.S.AlmamaterAkademi Seni Drama KerajaanPekerjaanAktormusisiTahun aktif1946–2023Suami/istri Jill Ireland (m. 1957; c. 1967) Katherine Carpenter (m. 1967)…
Post-Korean War process This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Transfer of People's Volunteer Army soldiers' remains from South Korea to China – news · newspapers …
Senegalese politician (1933–2017) Habib Thiam3rd Prime Minister of SenegalIn office8 April 1991 – 3 July 1998Preceded byPost abolishedSucceeded byMamadou Lamine LoumIn office1 January 1981 – 3 April 1983Preceded byAbdou DioufSucceeded byMoustapha Niasse Personal detailsBorn(1933-01-21)21 January 1933Dakar, SenegalDied26 June 2017(2017-06-26) (aged 84)Dakar, SenegalPolitical partySocialist PartySpouseAnne Majken née Hessner Habib Thiam (21 January 1933 – 26 Jun…
Huddersfield Koordinaten 53° 39′ N, 1° 47′ W53.647222222222-1.7838888888889Koordinaten: 53° 39′ N, 1° 47′ W Huddersfield (England) Huddersfield Traditionelle Grafschaft Yorkshire Einwohner 146.234 (Stand: 2001) Verwaltung Postleitzahlenabschnitt HD Vorwahl 01484 Landesteil England Region Yorkshire and the Humber Shire county West Yorkshire District Kirklees Huddersfield ist eine Großstadt im Vereinigten Königreich Großbritannien und No…
British actor (1926–2008) Patrick ConnorBorn(1926-08-06)6 August 1926Margate, Kent, EnglandDied22 July 2008(2008-07-22) (aged 81)EnglandOccupationActorSpouse Joyce Marlow (m. 1955)Children2 Patrick Connor (6 August 1926 – 22 July 2008) was a British actor.[1][2] His stage work included the original West End production of Alfie in 1963.[3] He was married to the actress and writer Joyce Marlow.[4][5] Filmography Year T…
U.S. Army brigadier general Robert Houston NobleFrom 1920's The Official History of the 315th Infantry U.S.A.Born(1861-11-03)November 3, 1861Federalsburg, Maryland, U.S.DiedOctober 26, 1939(1939-10-26) (aged 77)San Francisco, California U.S.BuriedCypress Lawn Memorial Park, Colma, CaliforniaAllegianceUnited StatesService/branchUnited States ArmyYears of service1884–1922Rank Brigadier GeneralUnitU.S. Army Infantry BranchCommands heldCompany D, 1st Infantry RegimentCompany B, 1st Infan…
Reality-based football gameAn example of a fantasy football matchup hosted and scored on the ESPN Fantasy app Fantasy football is a game in which the participants serve as owners and general managers of virtual professional American football teams. The competitors select their rosters by participating in a draft in which all relevant National Football League (NFL) players are available. Fantasy points are awarded in weekly matchups based on the actual performances of football players in real-wor…
Artikel ini adalah bagian dari seriPolitik dan ketatanegaraanIndonesia Pemerintahan pusat Hukum Pancasila(ideologi nasional) Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945 Hukum Perpajakan Ketetapan MPR Undang-undang Perppu Peraturan pemerintah Peraturan presiden Peraturan daerah Provinsi Kabupaten/kota Legislatif Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Ketua: Bambang Soesatyo (Golkar) Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Ketua: Puan Maharani (PDI-P) Dewan Perwakilan Daerah Ketua: La Nyalla Mattalitti (Jawa…
Japanese footballer This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (April 2021) Kohei NakanoPersonal informationDate of birth (2003-04-28) 28 April 2003 (age 20)Place of birth Osaka, JapanHeight 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in)Position(s) MidfielderYouth career0000–2020 Cerezo OsakaSenior career*Years Team Apps (Gls)2020–2022 Cerezo Osaka U-23 1 (0)2022 1. FC Bocholt 6 (1) *C…
علاء الدين الشعار معلومات شخصية الميلاد سنة 1948 السلمية الوفاة 17 فبراير 2019 (70–71 سنة) حماة الحياة العملية المهنة مصور تعديل مصدري - تعديل هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (مارس 2019) عل…
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International athletics championship event2014 African ChampionshipsChampionships logoDates10 August – 14 AugustHost cityMarrakech, Morocco VenueStade de MarrakechEvents44Participation548 athletes from 47 nationsRecords setChampionship records← 2012 2016 → The 2014 African Championships in Athletics was held in Marrakech, Morocco from 10 to 14 August 2014. The competition was the 19th edition of Africa senior championships. The competition served as preparation to African athletes …
BagorejoDesaKantor Desa BagorejoPeta lokasi Desa BagorejoNegara IndonesiaProvinsiJawa TimurKabupatenBanyuwangiKecamatanSronoKode pos68471Kode Kemendagri35.10.08.2001 Luas593,838 m2Jumlah penduduk10.487 OrangKepadatan- Bagorejo adalah sebuah nama desa di wilayah Srono, Kabupaten Banyuwangi, Provinsi Jawa Timur, Indonesia. Pembagian wilayah Desa ini terdiri dari 2 dusun, yaitu: Dusun Krajan (6 RW) Dusun Umbulrejo (7 RW) Galeri Jembatan yang menghubungkan Desa Bagorejo di Kecamatan Srono dan D…
This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Guerilla Disco – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) 2004 studio album by QuarashiGuerilla DiscoThe Icelandic cover art of Guerilla Disco.Studio album by QuarashiReleasedIceland - 2004 / Japan - 20…
Fast food restaurant Hot 'n NowTypePrivateIndustryFast foodFounded1984 in Kalamazoo, MichiganFounderWilliam Van DomelenHeadquartersHolt, MichiganNumber of locations1Area servedMichiganProductsHamburgersFrench friesSoft drinksMilkshakesFried chickenOwnerBTND, LLC Hot 'n Now is an American fast-food restaurant based in Holt, Michigan.[1] Founded in 1984, the chain once grew to more than 150 locations throughout the United States at its peak. Subsequently, under the ownership of PepsiCo, th…
Mountain in Alberta, Canada Not to be confused with Mount Abraham. Abraham MountainAbraham MountainHighest pointElevation2,820 m (9,250 ft)[1]Prominence160 m (520 ft)[1]Parent peakAllstones Peak (2940 m)[1]ListingMountains of AlbertaCoordinates52°16′04″N 116°27′53″W / 52.26778°N 116.46472°W / 52.26778; -116.46472[1]GeographyAbraham MountainLocation of Abraham Mountain in AlbertaShow map of AlbertaAb…
2015 studio album by Big SeanDark Sky ParadiseStudio album by Big SeanReleasedFebruary 24, 2015 (2015-02-24)Studio Doe Record Plant Yolo Estate (Los Angeles) Glenwood Place (Burbank) No Name (Malibu) Orange Room (Atlanta) S.O.T.A. (Toronto) GenreHip hopLength49:57Label GOOD Def Jam Producer Amaire Johnson Da Internz DJ Dahi DJ Mustard Jay John Henry Kanye West Key Wane L&F Mike Dean Mike Will Made It RobGotBeats T-Minus Vinylz Big Sean chronology Hall of Fame(2013) Dar…
Series of science fiction novels by Adrian Tchaikovsky The Final ArchitectureCover art for Shards of Earth, the first book in the series Shards of Earth Eyes of the Void Lords of Uncreation AuthorAdrian TchaikovskyCountryUnited KingdomLanguageEnglishPublisherOrbit Books; Tor BooksPublished 27 May 2021 (Shards of Earth) 3 May 2022 (Eyes of the Void) 2 May 2023 (Lords of Uncreation) The Final Architecture is a series of science fiction novels by British writer Adrian Tchaikovsky. It comprises Shar…
Radio stationRTL 102.5Broadcast areaItaly – National FM, DAB, DVB-T, Satellite and InternetFrequencyFM several frequencies, change from geographical side to side (generally 102.500 MHz)SKY Italia Channel 750ProgrammingFormatContemporary hit radioOwnershipOwnerRTL 102.5 Hit Radio S.r.l.HistoryFirst air date1975LinksWebcastFlash e MP3Websitewww.rtl.it RTL 102.5 is a private Italian radio station. Despite its name, this radio station is not endorsed or affiliated with RTL Group (it is owned by Lo…
Species of Old World monkey East Javan langur[1] Conservation status Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)[2] Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorhini Infraorder: Simiiformes Family: Cercopithecidae Genus: Trachypithecus Species group: Trachypithecus cristatus group Species: T. auratus Binomial name Trachypithecus auratusÉ. Geoffroy, 1812 Javan langur range, including both Trachypithecus auratus…
Не плутати з Тернопільським апеляційним судом. Апеляційний суд Тернопільської області Будинок правосуддя в ТернополіКраїна УкраїнаВид загальний судІнстанція Апеляційний судЮрисдикція Тернопільська областьЛіквідований 2018Суддів 24[1]Голова Гірський Б.О.[2]На пос…
Tribal religion in Indonesia This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: Marapu – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2008) The Marapu religion (also known as Marafu in Sumba) is a form of ancestral religion that is practiced mainly in the island of Sumba in Indonesia.[1] Mar…
هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (يونيو 2019) اضغط هنا للاطلاع على كيفية قراءة التصنيف ذوات السبيباوات المرتبة التصنيفية فصيلة فرعية (تصنيف)[1] التصنيف العلمي فوق النطاق حيويات مملكة علي…