Pre-human ancestors, the Danuvius guggenmosi, who were present in Germany over 11 million years ago, are theorized to be among the earliest ones to walk on two legs.[14] Ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago.[15] The first non-modern human fossil (the Neanderthal) was discovered in the Neander Valley.[16] Similarly dated evidence of modern humans has been found in the Swabian Jura, including 42,000-year-old flutes which are the oldest musical instruments ever found,[17] the 40,000-year-old Lion Man,[18] and the 41,000-year-old Venus of Hohle Fels.[19][20] The Nebra sky disk, created during the European Bronze Age, has been attributed to a German site.[21]
Germanic tribes, Roman frontier and the Frankish Empire
Around 260, Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands.[32] After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved farther southwest: the Franks established the Frankish Kingdom and pushed east to subjugate Saxony and Bavaria, and areas of what is today eastern Germany were inhabited by Western Slavic tribes.[29]
Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire in 800; it was divided in 843.[33] The eastern successor kingdom of East Francia stretched from the Rhine in the west to the Elbe river in the east and from the North Sea to the Alps.[33] Subsequently, the Holy Roman Empire emerged from it. The Ottonian rulers (919–1024) consolidated several major duchies.[34] In 996, Gregory V became the first German Pope, appointed by his cousin Otto III, whom he shortly after crowned Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture controversy.[35]
Under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), German princes encouraged German settlement to the south and east (Ostsiedlung).[36] Members of the Hanseatic League, mostly north German towns, prospered in the expansion of trade.[37] The population declined starting with the Great Famine in 1315, followed by the Black Death of 1348–1350.[38] The Golden Bull issued in 1356 provided the constitutional structure of the Empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors.[39]
The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 provided the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia and trigger World War I. After four years of warfare, in which approximately two million German soldiers were killed,[62] a general armistice ended the fighting. In the German Revolution (November 1918), Wilhelm II and the ruling princes abdicated their positions, and Germany was declared a federal republic. Germany's new leadership signed the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, accepting defeat by the Allies. Germans perceived the treaty as humiliating, which was seen by historians as influential in the rise of Adolf Hitler.[63] Germany lost around 13% of its European territory and ceded all of its colonial possessions in Africa and the Pacific.[64]
In 1935, the regime withdrew from the Treaty of Versailles and introduced the Nuremberg Laws which targeted Jews and other minorities.[76] Germany also reacquired control of the Saarland in 1935,[77]remilitarised the Rhineland in 1936, annexed Austria in 1938, annexed the Sudetenland in 1938 with the Munich Agreement, and in violation of the agreement occupied Czechoslovakia in March 1939.[78]Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) saw the burning of synagogues, the destruction of Jewish businesses, and mass arrests of Jewish people.[79]
After Nazi Germany surrendered, the Alliesde jureabolished the German state and partitioned Berlin and Germany's remaining territory into four occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR) (German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik; DDR). They were informally known as West Germany and East Germany.[92] East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was temporary.[93]
East Germany was an Eastern Bloc state under political and military control by the Soviet Union via occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact. Although East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members (Politbüro) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany, supported by the Stasi, an immense secret service.[98] While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged threat of a West German invasion, many of its citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity.[99] The Berlin Wall, built in 1961, prevented East German citizens from escaping to West Germany, becoming a symbol of the Cold War.[100]
Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the late 1960s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik.[101] In 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open its border with Austria, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary and Austria. This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. In an effort to help retain East Germany as a state, the East German authorities eased border restrictions, but this actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process culminating in the Two Plus Four Treaty under which Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR.[102] The fall of the Wall in 1989 became a symbol of the Fall of Communism, the dissolution of the Soviet Union, German reunification and Die Wende ("the turning point").[103]
United Germany was considered the enlarged continuation of West Germany so it retained its memberships in international organisations.[104] Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act (1994), Berlin again became the capital of Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal city) retaining some federal ministries.[105] The relocation of the government was completed in 1999, and modernisation of the East German economy was scheduled to last until 2019.[106][107]
Germany is the seventh-largest country in Europe.[4] It borders Denmark to the north, Poland and Czechia to the east, Austria and Switzerland to the south, and France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands to the west. Germany is also bordered by the North Sea and, at the north-northeast, by the Baltic Sea. German territory covers 357,569 km2 (138,058 sq mi).[6] Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2,963 metres or 9,721 feet) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the northwest and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the northeast. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: in the municipality Neuendorf-Sachsenbande, Wilstermarsch at 3.54 metres or 11.6 feet below sea level[115]) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Significant natural resources include iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, and nickel.[4]
Climate
Most of Germany has a temperate climate, ranging from oceanic in the north and west to continental in the east and southeast. Winters range from the cold in the Southern Alps to cool and are generally overcast with limited precipitation, while summers can vary from hot and dry to cool and rainy. The northern regions have prevailing westerly winds that bring in moist air from the North Sea, moderating the temperature and increasing precipitation. Conversely, the southeast regions have more extreme temperatures.[116]
From February 2019 – 2020, average monthly temperatures in Germany ranged from a low of 3.3 °C (37.9 °F) in January 2020 to a high of 19.8 °C (67.6 °F) in June 2019.[117] Average monthly precipitation ranged from 30 litres per square metre in February and April 2019 to 125 litres per square metre in February 2020.[118] Average monthly hours of sunshine ranged from 45 in November 2019 to 300 in June 2019.[119]
Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections using the mixed-member proportional representation system. The members of the Bundesrat represent and are appointed by the governments of the sixteen federated states.[4] The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitution known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both the Bundestag and the Bundesrat; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law, are valid in perpetuity.[130]
The president, currently Frank-Walter Steinmeier, is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates.[4] The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body.[131] The third-highest official and the head of government is the chancellor, who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the party or coalition with the most seats in the Bundestag.[4] The chancellor, currently Olaf Scholz, is the head of government and exercises executive power through his Cabinet.[4]
Germany is a federation and comprises sixteen constituent states which are collectively referred to as Länder.[134] Each state (Land) has its own constitution,[135] and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation.[134] As of 2017[update], Germany is divided into 401 districts (Kreise) at a municipal level; these consist of 294 rural districts and 107 urban districts.[136]
Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public.[143] With the exceptions of petty crimes, tried by a single professional judge, and of serious political crimes, all charges are adjudicated by mixed tribunals where lay judges (Schöffen) and professional judges preside together.[144][145]
As of 2016, Germany's murder rate stood at a low of 1.18 murders per 100,000.[146] In 2018, the overall crime rate fell to its lowest since 1992.[147]
Germany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad[149] and maintains relations with more than 190 countries.[150] Germany is a member of NATO, the OECD, the G7, the G20, the World Bank and the IMF. It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighbouring countries since 1990. Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political, economic and security apparatus.[151][152][153] The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies.[154] Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism.
[155] After 1990, Germany and Russia worked together to establish a "strategic partnership" in which energy development became one of the most important factors. As a result of the cooperation, Germany imported most of its natural gas and crude oil from Russia.[156][157]
Germany's development policy functions as a distinct sector within its foreign policy framework. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[158] It was the world's second-biggest aid donor in 2019 after the United States.[159]
Germany's military, the Bundeswehr (Federal Defence), is organised into the Heer (Army and special forces KSK), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force) and Cyber- und Informationsraum (Cyber and Information Domain Service) branches.[160] In absolute terms, German military spending in 2023 was the seventh-highest in the world.[161] In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Chancellor Olaf Scholz announced that German military expenditure would be increased past the NATO target of 2%, along with a one-time 2022 infusion of 100 billion euros, representing almost double the 53 billion euro military budget for 2021.[162][163] In 2023, military spending according to NATO criteria amounted to $73.1 billion, or 1.64% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%. In 2024, Germany reported $97.7 billion to NATO, exceeding the NATO target of 2% at 2.12% of GDP.[164]
In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence. In state of defence, the Chancellor would become commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr.[171] The role of the Bundeswehr is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only. But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994, the term "defence" has been defined not only to include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world. As of 2017,[update] the German military has about 3,600 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 1,200 supporting operations against Daesh, 980 in the NATO-led Resolute Support Mission in Afghanistan, and 800 in Kosovo.[172][173]
The top ten exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipments, pharmaceuticals, transport equipments, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.[188]
Four sizeable groups of people are referred to as national minorities because their ancestors have lived in their respective regions for centuries:[227] There is a Danish minority in the northernmost state of Schleswig-Holstein;[227] the Sorbs, a Slavic population, are in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg; the Roma and Sinti live throughout the country; and the Frisians are concentrated in Schleswig-Holstein's western coast and in the north-western part of Lower Saxony.[227]
After the United States, Germany is the second-most popular immigration destination in the world.[228] In 2015, following the 2015 refugee crisis, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs listed Germany as host to the second-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 12 million of all 244 million migrants.[229] Refugee crises have resulted in substantial population increases.[230] For example, the major influx of Ukrainian immigrants following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, meaning over 1.06 million refugees from Ukraine were recorded in Germany as of April 2023.[231] As of 2019[update], Germany ranks seventh among EU countries in terms of the percentage of migrants in the country's population, at 13.1%.[232] In 2022, there were 23.8 million people, 28.7 percent of the total population, who had a migration background.[233]
According to the 2022 census, Christianity is the largest religion at 49.7% of the population; 23.1% identified as Protestant and 25.1% as Catholic.[236]
Islam is the second-largest religion in the country.[237] In the 2011 census, 1.9% of respondents (1.52 million people) gave their religion as Islam, but this figure is deemed unreliable because a disproportionate number of adherents of this faith (and other religions, such as Judaism) are likely to have made use of their right not to answer the question.[238] In 2019, there were an estimated 5.3–5.6 million Muslims with a migrant background[h] (6.4–6.7% of the population), in addition to an unknown number of Muslims without a migrant background.[239] Most of the Muslims are Sunnis and Alevis from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites, Ahmadiyyas and other denominations. Other religions each comprise less than one percent of Germany's population.[237]
In 2011, formal members of the Jewish community represented no more than 0.2% of the total German population, and 60% of them resided in Berlin.[240] An estimated 80 to 90 percent of these Jews in Germany are Russian-speaking immigrants from the former Soviet Union, who came to Germany from the 1980s onwards.[241][242]
A study in 2023 estimated that 46.2% of the population are not members of any religious organization or denomination.[243]Irreligion in Germany is strongest in the former East Germany, which used to be predominantly Protestant before the enforcement of state atheism, and in major metropolitan areas.[244][245]
German is the official and predominantly spoken language in Germany.[246] It is one of 24 official and working languages of the European Union, and one of the three procedural languages of the European Commission, alongside English and French.[247] German is the most widely spoken first language in the European Union, with around 100 million native speakers.[248]
Heidelberg University, Germany's oldest institution of higher learning and generally considered one of its most renowned
Responsibility for educational supervision in Germany is primarily organised within the individual states. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years depending on the state. Primary education usually lasts for four to six years.[249] Secondary schooling is divided into tracks based on whether students pursue academic or vocational education.[250] A system of apprenticeship called Duale Ausbildung leads to a skilled qualification which is almost comparable to an academic degree. It allows students in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run trade school.[249] This model is well regarded and reproduced all around the world.[251]
The Hospital of the Holy Spirit in Lübeck, established in 1286, is a precursor to modern hospitals.[257]
Germany's system of hospitals, called Krankenhäuser, dates from medieval times, and today, Germany has the world's oldest universal health care system, dating from Bismarck's social legislation of the 1880s.[258] Since the 1880s, reforms and provisions have ensured a balanced health care system. The population is covered by a health insurance plan provided by statute, with criteria allowing some groups to opt for a private health insurance contract. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Germany's health care system was 77% government-funded and 23% privately funded as of 2013[update].[259] In 2014, Germany spent 11.3% of its GDP on health care.[260]
Germany ranked 21st in the world in 2019 in life expectancy with 78.7 years for men and 84.8 years for women according to the WHO, and it had a very low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live births). In 2019[update], the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease, at 37%.[261]Obesity in Germany has been increasingly cited as a major health issue. A 2014 study showed that 52 percent of the adult German population was overweight or obese.[262]
Culture in German states has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe, both religious and secular, and its scientists, writers and philosophers have played a significant role in the development of Western thought.[263] Global opinion polls from the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most positive influence in the world in 2013 and 2014.[264][265]
German cinema has made major technical and artistic contributions to film. The first works of the Skladanowsky Brothers were shown to an audience in 1895. The renowned Babelsberg Studio in Potsdam was established in 1912, thus being the first large-scale film studio in the world. Early German cinema was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau. Director Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the first major science-fiction film. After 1945, many of the films of the immediate post-war period can be characterised as Trümmerfilm (rubble film). East German film was dominated by the state-owned film studio DEFA, while the dominant genre in West Germany was the Heimatfilm ("homeland film").[291] During the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder brought West German auteur cinema to critical acclaim.
Bread is a significant part of German cuisine and German bakeries produce about 600 main types of bread and 1,200 types of pastries and rolls (Brötchen).[293]German cheeses account for about 22% of all cheese produced in Europe.[294] In 2012 over 99% of all meat produced in Germany was either pork, chicken or beef. Germans produce their ubiquitous sausages in almost 1,500 varieties, including Bratwursts and Weisswursts.[295]
^From 1952 to 1990, the entire "Das Lied der Deutschen" was the national anthem, but only the third verse was sung on official occasions. Since 1991, the third verse alone has been the national anthem.[1]
^Berlin is the sole constitutional capital and de jure seat of government, but the former provisional capital of the Federal Republic of Germany, Bonn, has the special title of "federal city" (Bundesstadt) and is the primary seat of six ministries.[2]
^The Bundesrat is sometimes referred to as an upper chamber of the German legislature. This is technically incorrect, since the German Constitution defines the Bundestag and Bundesrat as two separate legislative institutions. Hence, the federal legislature of Germany consists of two unicameral legislative institutions, not one bicameral parliament.
^Excluding Turkey, which only has 3% of its total territory in Europe along with some 10% of its population[226]
^A migrant background was defined as having been born or having at least one parent born in a country from a prespecified list of countries with a significant Muslim population, or as having citizenship or having at least one parent with citizenship of one of these countries.[239]
^Wells, Peter (2004). The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 13. ISBN978-0-393-35203-0.
^Rüger, C. (2004) [1996]. "Germany". In Bowman, Alan K.; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C. – A.D. 69. Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 527–28. ISBN978-0-521-26430-3. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016.
^Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (2005). The crisis of empire, A.D. 193–337. The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 12. Cambridge University Press. p. 442. ISBN978-0-521-30199-2.
^ abPhilpott, Daniel (January 2000). "The Religious Roots of Modern International Relations". World Politics. 52 (2): 206–245. doi:10.1017/S0043887100002604. S2CID40773221.
^Nicholas Atkin; Michael Biddiss; Frank Tallett, eds. (2011). The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789. Wiley. pp. 307–308. ISBN978-1-4443-9072-8.
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^Hewitson, Mark (2010). "'The Old Forms are Breaking Up, ... Our New Germany is Rebuilding Itself': Constitutionalism, Nationalism and the Creation of a German Polity during the Revolutions of 1848–49". The English Historical Review. 125 (516): 1173–1214. doi:10.1093/ehr/ceq276. JSTOR40963126.
^Olusoga, David; Erichsen, Casper (2010). The Kaiser's Holocaust: Germany's Forgotten Genocide and the Colonial Roots of Nazism. Faber and Faber. ISBN978-0-571-23141-6.
^ abMichael Bazyler (2016). Holocaust, Genocide, and the Law: A Quest for Justice in a Post-Holocaust World. Oxford University Press. pp. 169–70.
^Boemeke, Manfred F.; Feldman, Gerald D.; Glaser, Elisabeth (1998). Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years. Publications of the German Historical Institute. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–20, 203–220, 469–505. ISBN978-0-521-62132-8.
^Nicholls, AJ (2016). "1919–1922: Years of Crisis and Uncertainty". Weimar and the Rise of Hitler. Macmillan. pp. 56–70. ISBN978-1-349-21337-5.
^Costigliola, Frank (1976). "The United States and the Reconstruction of Germany in the 1920s". The Business History Review. 50 (4): 477–502. doi:10.2307/3113137. JSTOR3113137. S2CID155602870.
^Kolb, Eberhard (2005). The Weimar Republic. Translated by P. S. Falla; R. J. Park (2nd ed.). Psychology Press. p. 86. ISBN978-0-415-34441-8.
^Carlin, Wendy (1996). "West German growth and institutions (1945–90)". In Crafts, Nicholas; Toniolo, Gianni (eds.). Economic Growth in Europe Since 1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 464. ISBN978-0-521-49964-4.
^Major, Patrick; Osmond, Jonathan (2002). The Workers' and Peasants' State: Communism and Society in East Germany Under Ulbricht 1945–71. Manchester University Press. pp. 22, 41. ISBN978-0-7190-6289-6.
^"17: Gebiet und geografische Angaben"(PDF). Statistische Jahrbuch Schleswig-Holstein 2019/2020 (in German). Statistisches Amt für Hamburg und Schleswig-Holstein: 307. 2020. Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
^"Germany: Climate". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 March 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2020.
^Merryman, John; Pérez-Perdomo, Rogelio (2007). The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America. Stanford University Press. pp. 31–32, 62. ISBN978-0-8047-5569-6.
^ abLavery, Scott; Schmid, Davide (2018). Frankfurt as a financial centre after Brexit(PDF) (Report). SPERI Global Political Economy Brief. University of Sheffield. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 June 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
^ ab"Germany". International Energy Agency. 16 December 2021. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022. Retrieved 24 May 2022.
^"Committed to Biodiversity"(PDF). Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2017. Archived(PDF) from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
^"The German Language". FAZIT Communication GmbH. 20 February 2018. Archived from the original on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
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^Trines, Stefan (8 November 2016). "Education in Germany". World Education News and Reviews. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
^John Kmetz; Ludwig Finscher; Giselher Schubert; Wilhelm Schepping; Philip V. Bohlman (20 January 2001). "Germany, Federal Republic of". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40055.
^ abcDavid Jenkinson; Günther Binding; Doris Kutschbach; Ulrich Knapp; Howard Caygill; Achim Preiss; Helmut Börsch-Supan; Thomas Kliemann; April Eisman; Klaus Niehr; Jeffrey Chipps Smith; Ulrich Leben; Heidrun Zinnkann; Angelika Steinmetz; Walter Spiegl; G. Reinheckel; Hannelore Müller; Gerhard Bott; Peter Hornsby; Anna Beatriz Chadour; Erika Speel; A. Kenneth Snowman; Brigitte Dinger; Annamaria Giusti; Harald Olbrich; Christian Herchenröder; David Alan Robertson; Dominic R. Stone; Eduard Isphording; Heinrich Dilly (10 December 2018). "Germany, Federal Republic of". Grove Art Online. doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T031531. ISBN978-1-884446-05-4.
^Stiewe, Heinrich (2007). Fachwerkhäuser in Deutschland: Konstruktion, Gestalt und Nutzung vom Mittelalter bis heute. Primus Verlag. ISBN978-3-89678-589-3.
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^Reimer, Robert; Reimer, Carol (2019). Historical Dictionary of German Cinema. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 331. ISBN978-1-5381-1940-2.
^Philpott, Don (2016). The World of Wine and Food: A Guide to Varieties, Tastes, History, and Pairings. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 344. ISBN978-1-4422-6804-3.
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