This article is about the Habsburg realm between 1804 and 1867. For the Habsburg realms more generally, see Habsburg monarchy. For the Habsburg realm between 1867 and 1918, see Austria-Hungary.
The Austrian Empire,[a] officially known as the Empire of Austria, was a multinational European great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs. During its existence, it was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom, while geographically, it was the third-largest empire in Europe after the Russian Empire and the First French Empire.
The empire was proclaimed by Francis II in 1804 in response to Napoleon's declaration of the First French Empire, unifying all Habsburg possessions under one central government. It remained part of the Holy Roman Empire until the latter's dissolution in 1806. It continued fighting against Napoleon throughout the Napoleonic Wars, except for a period between 1809 and 1813, when Austria was first allied with Napoleon during the invasion of Russia and later neutral during the first few weeks of the Sixth Coalition War. Austria and its allies emerged victorious in the war, leading to the Congress of Vienna, which reaffirmed the empire as one of the great powers of the 19th century.
Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt (1797–1799) and Regensburg (1801–1803). On 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess (German: Reichsdeputationshauptschluss) was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, but the actual consequence of the Imperial Recess, along with the French occupying the Electorate of Hanover in the same month and various Holy Roman states becoming allied with or against France, was the end of the empire.[2] Taking this significant change into consideration, Holy Roman EmperorFrancis II created the title Emperor of Austria for himself and his successors, thereby becoming Francis I of Austria. This new title and state were created to safeguard his dynasty's imperial status as he foresaw either the end of the Holy Roman Empire, or the eventual accession of Napoleon as Holy Roman Emperor, who had earlier that year adopted the title Emperor of the French and established the First French Empire. Initially Francis II/I continued to hold both titles but abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.
This new empire or "Kaiserthum" (lit.'Kaiser-dom') comprised all the lands of the Habsburg monarchy, which had until then been legally separate realms in personal union (a composite monarchy) under Francis and his predecessors. By contrast, the Austrian Empire was legally a single state, although the overarching structure and the status of its component lands at first stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy. This was especially demonstrated by the status of the Kingdom of Hungary, a country that had never been a part of the Holy Roman Empire and which had always been considered a separate realm – a status that was affirmed by Article X, which was added to Hungary's constitution in 1790 and described the state as a Regnum Independens. Hungary's affairs remained administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been beforehand; thus no Imperial institutions were involved in its government.[3][4][5]
The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805. On 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by General Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the city of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers and many cannons. Napoleon's army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, which concluded with an armistice on 6 December 1805.
The French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to ally themselves with the French and assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, Maximilian IV Joseph, the prince-elector and Duke of Bavaria, proclaimed himself king, followed by the Duke of Württemberg Frederick III on 11 December. Charles Frederick, Margrave of Baden, was given the title of Grand Duke on 12 December. Each of these new states became French allies.[6]
Francis II agreed to the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg, signed in Pressburg (today Bratislava, Slovakia) on 26 December 1805, in which he recognised these new titles and ceded large amounts of territory to Napoleon's German allies and the French Satellite Kingdom of Italy. In practice this meant the dissolution of the long-lived Holy Roman Empire and a reorganization under a Napoleonic model of the German states. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception.
On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and countries. This confederation, under French influence, de facto put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, Francis proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him.
The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was not recognized by George III of the United Kingdom who was also the Elector of Hanover (formally Brunswick-Lüneburg) and Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg; Hanover and Lauenburg were incorporated into the French satellite Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, having been occupied several times since 1801, but Britain remained at war with France and no treaty was signed recognising their annexation. His claims were later settled by the creation of the Kingdom of Hanover which was held by George IV and William IV as Kings of Hanover. Succession could only be in the male line, so on Queen Victoria's accession to the British throne, her uncle, Ernest Augustus, succeeded as King of Hanover, thus ending the personal union with Great Britain that dated to 1714.
Metternich era
Klemens von Metternich became Foreign Minister in 1809. He also held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848, under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I. The period of 1815–1848 is also referred to as the "Age of Metternich".[7] During this period, Metternich controlled the Habsburg monarchy's foreign policy. He also had a major influence in European politics. He was known for his strong conservative views and approach in politics. Metternich's policies were strongly against revolution and liberalism.[8] In his opinion, liberalism was a form of legalized revolution.[9] Metternich believed that absolute monarchy was the only proper system of government.[7] This notion influenced his anti-revolutionary policy to ensure the continuation of the Habsburg monarchy in Europe. Metternich was a practitioner of balance-of-power diplomacy.[10] His foreign policy aimed to maintain international political equilibrium to preserve the Habsburgs' power and influence in international affairs. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Metternich was the chief architect of the Congress of Vienna in 1815.[10] The Austrian Empire was the main beneficiary from the Congress of Vienna and it established an alliance with Britain, Prussia, and Russia forming the Quadruple Alliance.[8] The Austrian Empire also gained new territories from the Congress of Vienna, and its influence expanded to the north through the German Confederation and also into Italy.[8] Due to the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria was the leading member of the German Confederation.[11] Following the Congress, the major European powers agreed to meet and discuss resolutions in the event of future disputes or revolutions. Because of Metternich's main role in the architecture of the Congress, these meetings are also referred to as the "Metternich congress" or "Metternich system". Under Metternich as the Austrian foreign minister, other congresses would meet to resolve European foreign affairs. These included the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), and Verona (1822).[7] The Metternich congresses aimed to maintain the political equilibrium among the European powers and prevent revolutionary efforts. These meetings also aimed to resolve foreign issues and disputes without resorting to violence. By means of these meetings and by allying the Austrian Empire with other European powers whose monarchs had a similar interest in preserving conservative political direction, Metternich was able to establish the Austrian Empire's influence on European politics. Also, because Metternich used the fear of revolutions among European powers, which he also shared, he was able to establish security and predominance of the Habsburgs in Europe.[8]
Under Metternich, nationalist revolts in Austrian north Italy and in the German states were forcibly crushed. At home, he pursued a similar policy to suppress revolutionary and liberal ideals. He employed the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which used strict censorship of education, press and speech to repress revolutionary and liberal concepts.[7] Metternich also used a wide-ranging spy network to dampen down unrest.
Metternich operated very freely with regard to foreign policy under Emperor Francis I's reign. Francis died in 1835. This date marks the decline of Metternich's influence in the Austrian Empire. Francis' heir was his son Ferdinand I, but he suffered from health issues. Ferdinand's accession preserved the Habsburg dynastic succession, but he was not capable of ruling.[8] The leadership of the Austrian Empire was transferred to a state council composed of Metternich, Francis I's brother Archduke Louis, and Count Franz Anton Kolowrat, who later became the first Minister-President of the Austrian Empire. The liberal Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire forced Metternich's resignation. Metternich is remembered for his success in maintaining the status quo and the Habsburg influence in international affairs.[7] No Habsburg foreign minister following Metternich held a similar position within the empire for such a long time nor held such a vast influence on European foreign affairs.[8]
Historians generally consider the Metternich era as a period of stability: the Austrian Empire fought no wars nor did it undergo any radical internal reforms.[12] However, it was also thought of as a period of economic growth and prosperity in the Austrian Empire.[12] The population of Austria rose to 37.5 million by 1843. Urban expansion also occurred and the population of Vienna reached 400,000. During the Metternich era, the Austrian Empire also maintained a stable economy and reached an almost balanced budget, despite having a major deficit following the Napoleonic Wars.[13]
From March 1848 through November 1849, the Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, most of which were of a nationalist character. Besides that, liberal and even socialist currents resisted the empire's longstanding conservatism. Although most of the revolution plans failed, some changes were made; significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom, cancellation of censorship and a promise made by Ferdinand I of Austria said to implement a constitution throughout the whole Empire.[14]
After the death of Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg in 1852, the Minister of the Interior Baron Alexander von Bach largely dictated policy in Austria and Hungary. Bach centralized administrative authority for the Austrian Empire, but he also endorsed reactionary policies that reduced freedom of the press and abandoned public trials. He later represented the Absolutist (or Klerikalabsolutist) party, which culminated in the concordat of August 1855 that gave the Roman Catholic Church control over education and family life. This period in the history of the Austrian Empire would become known as the era of neo-absolutism, or Bach's absolutism.
The pillars of the so-called Bach system (Bachsches System) were, in the words of Adolf Fischhof, four "armies": a standing army of soldiers, a sitting army of office holders, a kneeling army of priests and a fawning army of sneaks.[citation needed] Prisons were full of political prisoners, like Czech nationalist journalist and writer Karel Havlíček Borovský who was forcibly expatriated (1851–1855) to Brixen. This exile undermined Borovský's health and he died soon afterwards. This affair earned Bach a very bad reputation among Czechs and subsequently led to the strengthening of the Czech national movement.[citation needed]
However, Bach's relaxed ideological views (apart from the neo-absolutism) led to a great rise in the 1850s of economic freedom. Internal customs duties were abolished, and peasants were emancipated from their feudal obligations.[15]
In her capacity as leader of the German Confederation, Austria participated with volunteers in the First War of Schleswig (1848–1850).[11]
Sardinia allied itself with France for the conquest of Lombardy–Venetia. Austria was defeated in the 1859 armed conflict. The Treaties of Villafranca and Zürich removed Lombardy, except for the part east of the Mincio river, the so-called Mantovano.[16]
The Constitution of 1861, also known as "February Patent", created a House of Lords (Herrenhaus) and a House of Deputies (Abgeordnetenhaus). But most nationalities of the monarchy remained dissatisfied.[17]
After the second war with Denmark in 1864, Holstein came under Austrian administration, and Schleswig and Lauenburg under Prussian administration. But the internal difficulties continued.[18] Diets replaced the parliament in 17 provinces, the Hungarians pressed for autonomy, and Venetia was attracted by the now unified Italy.
After the Austrian army was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the German Confederation was dissolved, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted. By this act, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities joined on an equal basis to form the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The frequent abbreviation K.u.K. (Kaiserliche und Königliche, "Imperial and Royal") does not refer to that dual monarchy but originated in 1745, when the "royal" part referred to the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary.[citation needed] However, during World War I Austria-Hungary issued military stamps for use in occupied regions, with the text "K.u.K. Feldpost" or K.u.K. Militärpost.
Imperial standard of the Austrian Empire with the lesser coat of arms (used until 1915 for Austria-Hungary)
Imperial standard of the Austrian Empire with the medium coat of arms (used until 1915 for Austria-Hungary)
Merchant ensign from 1786 until 1869 and naval and war ensign from 1786 until 1915 (de jure, de facto until 1918)
The Napoleonic Wars dominated Austrian foreign policy from 1804 to 1815. The Austrian army was one of the most formidable forces the French had to face. After Prussia signed a peace treaty with France on 5 April 1795, Austria was forced to carry the main burden of war with Napoleonic France for almost ten years. This severely overburdened the Austrian economy, making the war greatly unpopular. Emperor Francis I therefore refused to join any further war against Napoleon for a long time. On the other hand, Francis I continued to intrigue for the possibility of revenge against France, entering into a secret military agreement with the Russian Empire in November 1804. This convention was to assure mutual cooperation in the case of a new war against France.[19]
Austrian unwillingness to join the Third Coalition was overcome by British subsidies, but the Austrians withdrew from the war yet again after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz. Although the Austrian budget suffered from wartime expenditures and its international position was significantly undermined, the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg provided plenty of time to strengthen the army and economy. Moreover, the ambitious Archduke Charles and Johann Philipp von Stadion never abandoned the goal of further war with France.[citation needed]
The Austrian Empire in 1812
Archduke Charles of Austria served as the Head of the Council of War and Commander in Chief of the Austrian army. Endowed with the enlarged powers, he reformed the Austrian Army to preparedness for another war. Johann Philipp von Stadion, the foreign minister, personally hated Napoleon due to an experience of confiscation of his possessions in France by Napoleon. In addition, the third wife of Francis I, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este, agreed with Stadion's efforts to begin a new war. Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, located in Paris, called for careful advance in the case of the war against France. The defeat of French army at the Battle of Bailén in Spain on 27 July 1808 triggered the war. On 9 April 1809, an Austrian force of 170,000 men attacked Bavaria.[20]
Despite military defeats of the Austrian army—especially the Battles of Marengo, Ulm, Austerlitz and Wagram—and consequently lost territory throughout the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (the Treaties of Campo Formio in 1797, Luneville in 1801, Pressburg in 1806, and Schönbrunn in 1809), Austria played a decisive part in the overthrow of Napoleon in the campaigns of 1813–14. It participated in a second invasion of France in 1815, and put an end to Murat's regime in south Italy.[citation needed]
The latter period of Napoleonic Wars featured Metternich exerting a large degree of influence over foreign policy in the Austrian Empire, a matter nominally decided by the Emperor. Metternich initially supported an alliance with France, arranging the marriage between Napoleon and Francis I's daughter, Marie-Louise; however, by the 1812 campaign, he had realised the inevitability of Napoleon's downfall and took Austria to war against France. Metternich's influence at the Congress of Vienna was remarkable, and he became not only the premier statesman in Europe but the virtual ruler of the Empire until 1848—the Year of revolutions—and the rise of liberalism equated to his political downfall. The result was that the Austrian Empire was seen as one of the great powers after 1815, but also as a reactionary force and an obstacle to national aspirations in Italy and Germany.[21]
During this time, Metternich was able to maintain an elaborate balance between Prussia, the lesser German states, and Austria in the German Confederation. Thanks to his efforts, Austria was seen as the senior partner with Prussia keeping watch over Germany as a whole. Further, Metternich opposed the weakening of France in the years after Napoleon, and viewed the new monarchy in Paris as an effective tool in keeping Russia at bay. From 1815 to 1848, Metternich steered Austria Imperial foreign policy, and indeed the mood of Europe, and managed to keep peace on the continent despite the growing liberal and radical movements inside most major powers. His resignation in 1848, forced by moderates in the court, and revolutionaries in the streets, may have caused the spread of the revolutions throughout the monarchy. It is stipulated that Metternich's departure emboldened liberal factions in Austria and Hungary, but this cannot be confirmed for certain.
During the Crimean War, Austria maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia, and, while not going to war, was supportive of the Anglo-French coalition. Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war, which contributed to Russia's non-intervention in the 1859 Franco-Austrian War, which meant the end of Austrian influence in Italy; and in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, with the loss of its influence in most German-speaking land.[22]
Constituent lands
The Austrian Empire, between 1816 and 1859 (the Military Frontier is not shown)The Austrian Empire, in 1866 and 1867Ethnographic composition of the Austrian Empire in 1855
The old Habsburg possessions of Further Austria (in today's France, Germany and Switzerland) had already been lost in the 1805 Peace of Pressburg.
From 1850, Croatia, Slavonia, and the Military Frontier constituted a single land with disaggregated provincial and military administration, and representation.[23]
Administratively, most of the crown lands excluding Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, Lombardy–Venetia and the Military Frontier were divided into Kreise ('circles'), an administrative division introduced under Maria Theresa in the 18th century. Following the revolutions of 1848 a brief attempt was made to introduce modern-style political districts (in addition to the Kreise),[24] but the reforms of Bach in 1853/54[25] instead instituted a system which delegated the responsibilities of the Kreise among subordinate Amtsbezirke [de] ('office districts'), a system which persisted until 1867.
In the course of the post-1848 reforms Transylvania was also divided into Kreise in 1851[26] (re-divided in 1854[27]); the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar was also divided into Kreise.[28]
Education
German was the primary language of higher education in the empire.[29]
Gallery
The 'hauskrone' of Rudolph II, later the imperial crown of the Austrian Empire
The crown jewels of Austria
Growth of the Habsburg Monarchy
Vereinstaler of 1866
Postage stamp depicting Francis I
Postage stamp depicting Franz Joseph I
Double-headed eagle at the Ministry of War in Vienna
Military districts in Hungarian part of the Empire in 1850
^Laszlo, Péter (2011), Hungary's Long Nineteenth Century: Constitutional and Democratic Traditions, Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, the Netherlands, p. 6, From the perspective of the Court since 1723, regnum Hungariae had been a hereditary province of the dynasty's three main branches on both lines. From the perspective of the ország, Hungary was regnum independens, a separate Land as Article X of 1790 stipulated ........ In 1804, Emperor Franz assumed the title of Emperor of Austria for all the Erblande of the dynasty and for the other Lands, including Hungary. Thus Hungary formally became part of the Empire of Austria. The Court reassured the diet, however, that the assumption of the monarch's new title did not in any sense affect the laws and the constitution of Hungary
^"Vor dem Jahr 1848 is[t] das Kaisertum Österreich verfassungsrechtlich als ein monarchischer Einheitsstaat auf differenziert föderalistischer Grundlage zu sehen, wobei die besondere Stel[l]ung Ungarns im Rahmen dieses Gesamtstaates stets offenkundig war. Eine weitere Differenzierung der föderalistischen Grundlage erfolgte ab 1815 durch die Zugehörigkeit eines teiles des Kaisertums zum Deutschen Bund." "Before 1848 the Austrian Empire can be regarded in constitutional law as a unitary monarchy on a differentiated federalistic basis, whereby the special position of Hungary within the framework of this federal entity was always evident. A further differentiation of the federalistic position followed from 1815 through the affiliation of a part of the empire to the German federation."Zeilner, Franz (2008), Verfassung, Verfassungsrecht und Lehre des Öffentlichen Rechts in Österreich bis 1848: Eine Darstellung der materiellen und formellen Verfassungssituation und der Lehre des öffentlichen Rechts, Lang, Frankfurt am Main, p. 45
^Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule (Vol. 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 2016. ISBN978-1317118442. Google BooksPT196.
Further reading
Bassett, Richard. For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619–1918 (2016).
Sked, Alan. "Explaining the Habsburg Empire, 1830–90." in Pamela Pilbeam, ed., Themes in Modern European History 1830–1890 (Routledge, 2002) pp. 141–176.
Sked, Alan (2008). Metternich and Austria: An Evaluation.
Sked, Alan (2001). The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815–1918 (2nd ed.).
Steed, Henry Wickham. The Hapsburg monarchy (1919) online detailed contemporary account
Бруклін — термін, який має кілька значень. Ця сторінка значень містить посилання на статті про кожне з них.Якщо ви потрапили сюди за внутрішнім посиланням, будь ласка, поверніться та виправте його так, щоб воно вказувало безпосередньо на потрібну статтю.@ пошук посилань са
Jenderal Besar TNI Abdul Haris Nasution diangkat sebagai warga kehormatan KKO pada 15 November 1965 Jenderal TNI Try Sutrisno diangkat sebagai warga kehormatan korps marinir pada 15 November 1990 Jenderal TNI L.B. Moerdani diangkat sebagai warga kehormatan korps marinir pada 5 Desember 1986 Berkas:Moeldoko P TNI.jpgPanglima TNI Jenderal TNI Moeldoko diangkat sebagai warga kehormatan korps marinir di lapangan tembak F.X. Soepramono Karang Pilang, Surabaya, pada 1 November 2013 Berkas:Putra Mah...
Cheng Yen Informasi Nama lahir: Wang Jinyun Nama lainnya: Hui Chang Nama Dharma: Cheng Yen Tanggal lahir: 4 Mei 1937 (umur 86) Tempat lahir: Qingshui, Kabupaten Taichung, Republik Tiongkok Kewarganegaraan: Republik Tiongkok Gelar: Venerable Master Tempat kerja: Tzu Chi Pekerjaan: Bhikkhuni Guru: Yin Shun Website Portal Buddhisme Cheng Yen (Hanzi tradisional: 證嚴法師, Hanyu Pinyin: Zhèngyán; lahir 4 Mei 1937) adalah seorang bhikkhuni Taiwan. Pada tahun 1966, Cheng Yen mendiri...
Los asesinos de la luna de las flores: Los crímenes en la nación Osage y el nacimiento del FBI de David GrannGénero No ficción Tema(s) Asesinatos en la nación Osage y el FBIAmbientada en Estados Unidos Edición original en inglésTítulo original Killers of the Flower Moon: The Osage Murders and the Birth of the FBIEditorial DoubledayPaís Estados Unidos Fecha de publicación 2017 Edición traducida al españolTítulo Los asesinos de la luna de las flores: Los crímenes en la nació...
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Oktober 2022. Air Terjun Ngleyangan, sebuah air terjun yang berada di suatu daerah di Goliman, Parang, Kecamatan Banyakan, Kabupaten Kediri, Provinsi Jawa Timur. Air Terjun Ngleyangan ini berada di bagian lereng Gunung Wilis tepatnya berada didalam hutan Gunung Wili...
Part of a series onDiscrimination Forms Institutional Structural Attributes Age Caste Class Dialect Disability Genetic Hair texture Height Language Looks Mental disorder Race / Ethnicity Skin color Scientific racism Rank Sex Sexual orientation Species Size Viewpoint Social Arophobia Acephobia Adultism Anti-albinism Anti-autism Anti-homelessness Anti-drug addicts Anti-intellectualism Anti-intersex Anti-left handedness Anti-Masonry Antisemitism Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Clannism Cron...
Terboyo - Pemuda Balaikota via GenukArmada Bus Trans Semarang Koridor 7Informasi umumDaerah operasiKota SemarangOperator saat ini BLU Trans Semarang (prasarana dan petugas) PT Cakra Mega Transport (armada dan pramudi) Peta rute lbsTrans Semarang Koridor 7 Legenda Halte Terboyo Polsek Genuk Pasar Genuk Pasar Banjardowo Pesantren Robbi Rodliyya Kecamatan Genuk Banjardowo Sembungharjo Sedayu Tugu Sedayu Sawo Pasar Bangetayu Taman Bangetayu Gasem Aneka Jaya Jatem Fransiskus Ganesha Palebon SMP Ke...
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guidelines for companies and organizations. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be shown, the articl...
Чан Шоу-фун Народилася 29 березня 1941(1941-03-29)[1] (82 роки)Цзіньхуа, Чжецзян, КНРКраїна Республіка КитайДіяльність письменниця-романістка, захисниця довкілля, політична діячкаAlma mater Університет Сучжоу (Тайвань)dПосада член Законодавчого ЮаняdПартія People First PartydКонфе...
Angry Birds StellaGame iconNhà phát triểnRovio EntertainmentNhà phát hànhRovio EntertainmentÂm nhạcLee NicklenDòng trò chơiAngry BirdsNền tảngiOS, Android, BlackBerry 10, Windows Phone 8Phát hành4 tháng 9 năm 2014Thể loạiPuzzleChế độ chơiSingle-player Angry Birds Stella được biết đến với tên là Angry Birds Slingshot Stella, là một trong những game nằm trong bộ sưu tập spin-off của Angry Birds Stella, sử dụng cách chơi bắn chim ...
1994 third-person shooter video game 1994 video gameVirtuosoDeveloper(s)MotiveTimePublisher(s)DOSNA: Nova SpringEU: Elite Systems 3DONA: Data EastEU: Elite SystemsJP: ImagineerProgrammer(s)Andrew G. WilliamsMat DraperPeter WakeArtist(s)Andrew TaylorRussell PhillipsWayne EdwardsComposer(s)Thai Dyed SuicidePlatform(s)3DO Interactive MultiplayerDOSReleaseDOSNA: 1994EU: 1994 3DONA: 1995EU: 1995JP: 1 September 1995[1]Genre(s)Third-person shooterMode(s)Single-player Virtuoso[a] is a...
1802–1920 guberniya of the Russian Empire This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Kherson Governorate – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Governorate in Russian EmpireKherson Governorate Херсонская губерніяG...
In Italien ist eine Handels-, Industrie-, Handwerks- und Landwirtschaftskammer (Camera di commercio, industria, artigianato e agricoltura, CCIAA), vereinfachend in der Regel „Handelskammer“ (Camera di commercio) genannt, eine autonome öffentlich-rechtliche Körperschaft und als solche eine Selbstverwaltungseinrichtung der Wirtschaft. Die Kammern stehen unter der Aufsicht des italienischen Wirtschaftsministeriums. Das Pendant der italienischen Handels-, Industrie-, Handwerks- und Landwirt...
Perang Prancis-MeksikoLukisan karya Édouard ManetTanggal8 Desember 1861 - 21 Juni 1867 (5 tahun, 6 bulan, 1 minggu dan 6 hari)LokasiMeksikoHasil Kemenangan Meksiko Penarikan pasukan Prancis dari MeksikoPihak terlibat Prancis Kekaisaran Meksiko Kedua Didukung oleh Spain (1861–1862) Britania Raya (1861–1862) Austria[1] Belgia Egypt (dengan Tentara budak Sudan)[2] Konfederasi Amerika Pengasingan Polindia[3] Principatele Unite[4][5] Me...
Santo Paus Pius XAwal masa kepausan4 Agustus 1903Akhir masa kepausan20 Agustus 1914PendahuluPaus Leo XIIIPenerusPaus Benediktus XVImamatTahbisan imam18 September 1858oleh Giovanni Antonio FarinaTahbisan uskup20 November 1884oleh Lucido Maria ParocchiPelantikan kardinal12 Juni 1893oleh Leo XIIIInformasi pribadiNama lahirGiuseppe Melchiorre SartoLahir(1835-06-02)2 Juni 1835Riese, ItaliaMeninggal20 Agustus 1914(1914-08-20) (umur 79)Istana Apostolik, VatikanTanda tanganLambangOrang...
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Desember 2022. SDN Cawang 04Sekolah Dasar Negeri Cawang 04InformasiJenisNegeriAkreditasi91 (A) UnggulNomor Pokok Sekolah Nasional20104380Kepala SekolahHotmasniari Damanik, S.ThKurikulumKurikulum 2013Jumlah siswa389 2022StatusAktifAlamatLokasiJln. Ja`Ani Na...
2002 studio album by Chris IsaakAlways Got TonightStudio album by Chris IsaakReleasedFebruary 12, 2002Recorded2001GenreRockabillyLength43:43LabelRepriseProducerJohn ShanksChris Isaak chronology Speak of the Devil(1998) Always Got Tonight(2002) Christmas(2004) Professional ratingsAggregate scoresSourceRatingMetacritic70/100[1]Review scoresSourceRatingAllMusic[2]Rolling Stone[3] Always Got Tonight is the eighth studio album by Chris Isaak.[2] It was relea...
The Time: Night Cover of the 2000 Northwestern University Press editionAuthorLyudmila PetrushevskayaTranslatorSally LairdCountryRussiaLanguageRussian/EnglishGenreFictionPublication date1992Media typePrintPages155 The Time: Night (Russian: Время ночь) is a novella by Russian author Lyudmila Petrushevskaya. It was originally published in Russian in the literary journal Novy Mir in 1992 and translated into English by Sally Laird in 1994. In 1992 it was shortlisted for the Russian B...
Chinese chemical manufacturing company ABA Chemical CorporationNative name雅本化学FormerlySuzhou ABA Chemicals Co. LtdTypePublicTraded asSZSE: 300261 ABACHEMIndustryChemicalsFounded2006; 17 years ago (2006)[1]HeadquartersTaicang, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China[2]Number of locations6 faciliites (2017)[3]Key peopleCai Tong (Chairman/President)[3]Mao Haifeng (Vice President)Ma Lifan (Vice President)Number of employees1,073[2]Websiteabachem.co...
Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!
.svg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
.svg)
.JPG)
.jpg)
