Doner kebab (UK: /ˈdɒnərkɪˈbæb/; US: /ˈdoʊnərkɪˈbɑːb/; Turkish: döner or döner kebap, pronounced[dœˈnæɾkeˈbɑp]), also spelled as döner kebab, is a dish of Turkish origin made of meat cooked on a vertical rotisserie.[1] Seasoned meat stacked in the shape of an inverted cone is turned slowly on the rotisserie, next to a vertical cooking element. The operator uses a knife to slice thin shavings from the outer layer of the meat as it cooks. The vertical rotisserie was invented in the 19th-century Ottoman Empire, and dishes such as the Arab shawarma, Greek gyros, Canadian donair, and Mexican al pastor are derived from this.[2][3][4]
The modern sandwich variant of doner kebab originated and was popularized in 1970s West Berlin by Turkish immigrants.[5][6][7] This was recognized by the Berlin-based Association of Turkish Döner Manufacturers in Europe in 2011.[8]
The sliced meat of a doner kebab may be served on a plate with various accompaniments, stuffed into a pita or other type of bread as a sandwich, or wrapped in a thin flatbread such as lavash or filo, known as a dürüm (literally meaning roll or wrap in Turkish). Kadir Nurman in the early 1970s introduced the sandwich or wrap form, which has become popular around the world as a fast food dish sold by kebab shops, and is often called simply a "kebab".[9] The sandwich generally contains salad or vegetables, which may include tomato; lettuce; cabbage; onion with sumac; fresh or pickled cucumber or chili; and various types of sauces.[10][11]
In the Ottoman Empire, at least as far back as the 17th century, stacks of seasoned sliced meat were cooked on a horizontal rotisserie, similar to the cağ kebab.[12] The vertical rotisserie was introduced no later than the mid-19th century.[12][2][13] The town of Bursa, in modern-day Turkey, is often considered the birthplace of the vertically roasted doner kebab.[14] According to Yavuz İskenderoğlu, his grandfather İskender Efendi as a child in 1850s Bursa had the idea of roasting the lamb at his father's restaurant vertically rather than horizontally; it was a success, and some years later became known as doner kebap.[15][non-primary source needed] However, he may have been preceded by Hamdi Usta from Kastamonu around 1830.[16][17][18]
A version popular in the Arab world became known as shawarma. By at least the 1930s it had been brought overseas, and was sold in restaurants in Mexico by Lebanese immigrants.[3] Doner kebab likely arrived in Greece in the 1920s with the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, later transforming into gyros.[19]
It was not until a century after its invention that doner kebab was introduced and popularized in Istanbul, most famously by Beyti Güler. His restaurant, first opened in 1945, was soon discovered by journalists and began serving doner and other kebab dishes to kings, prime ministers, film stars and celebrities.[20] It has been sold in sandwich form in Istanbul since at least the mid-1960s.[18]
The doner kebab and its derivatives served in a sandwich form as "fast food" came to worldwide prominence in the mid- to late 20th century. The first doner kebab shop in London opened in 1966[21] and such shops were a familiar sight in provincial cities by the late 1970s. Gyros was already popular in Greece and New York City in 1971.[22][23] A Greek-Canadian variation, the donair, was introduced in 1972, eventually becoming the official food of Halifax, and spreading across the country.[24][25] By the 1960s, the taco al pastor in Mexico had evolved from the shawarma.[3]
In Germany, the doner kebab was popularized by Turkish guest workers in Berlin in the early 1970s.[26] The dish developed there from its original form into a distinctive style of sandwich with abundant salad, vegetables, and sauces, sold in large portions at affordable prices. It would soon become one of the top-selling fast food and street food dishes in Germany and much of Europe, and popular around the world.[27]
Etymology
In the English name "doner kebab", the word doner is borrowed from the Turkish döner kebap, with the Turkish letter ö usually anglicized as "o",[28] though "döner kebab" is an alternative spelling in English.[29] The word "kebab" is used, which comes to English from the Arabic: كَبَاب (kabāb), partly through Urdu, Persian and Turkish; it may refer to a number of different kebab dishes made with roasted or grilled meat. Although kebab has been used in English since the late 17th century, doner/döner kebab is known only from the mid-20th century or later.[29] The Turkish word döner comes from dönmek ("to turn" or "to rotate"), so the Turkish name döner kebap literally means "rotating roast".[30] In German, it is spelled Döner Kebab; the sandwich is often called ein Döner. Particularly in British English, a doner kebab sandwich may be referred to simply as "a kebab".[31] A Canadian variation is donair. In Greek, it was originally called döner (Greek: ντονέρ) but later came to be known as gyros, from γύρος ("turn"), a calque of the Turkish name.[32] The Arabic name شاورما (shāwarmā) derives from another Turkish word, çevirme, also meaning "turning". Persians refer to it as kebab torki.[33]
Porsiyon ("portion", doner on a slightly heated plate, sometimes with a few grilled peppers or broiled tomatoes on the side)
Pilavüstü ("over rice", doner served on a base of pilaf rice)
İskender (specialty of Bursa, served in an oblong plate, atop a base of pide (thin flatbread similar to pita), with a dash of pepper or tomato sauce and boiling fresh butter).[35] "Kebapçı İskender" is trademarked by Yavuz İskenderoğlu, whose family still runs the restaurant in Bursa.[36][37][38]
Dürüm, wrapped in a thin lavaş that is sometimes also grilled after being rolled, to make it crispier. It has two main variants in mainland Turkey:
Soslu dürüm or SSK (sos, soğan, kaşar; in English: sauce, onion, cheese) (specialty of Ankara, contains İskender kebap sauce, making it juicier)
Kaşarlı dürüm döner (speciality of Istanbul, grated kaşar cheese is put in the wrap which is then toasted to melt the cheese and crisp up the lavaş)
Tombik or gobit (literally "the chubby", doner in a bun-shaped pita, with crispy crust and soft inside and generally less meat than a dürüm)
Ekmekarası ("between bread", generally the most filling version, consisting of a whole (or a half) regular Turkish bread filled with doner)
Regional variations
Caucasus, Middle East and Asia
Azerbaijan
In Azerbaijan, doner kebab (Azerbaijani: dönər), served similarly to the European style of sandwich wrapped in lavaş (flatbread) or in çörәk (bread, including tandoor bread), is one of the most widespread fast foods. It is usually made with әt (meat, essentially lamb or mutton), but sometimes toyuq (chicken).[39][40][41]
In Japan, doner kebabs are now common, especially in Tokyo. They are predominantly made of chicken but occasionally beef, and called simply "kebab". The toppings include shredded lettuce or cabbage, sliced tomato, and usually a choice of sauces such as Thousand Island, spicy, and garlic.[42]
Vietnam
A döner street food cart in Hanoi, Vietnam
Doner kebab is increasingly becoming popular in Vietnam, mostly because of Vietnamese who used to live in Germany and introduced it to their homeland. Throughout Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City many doner kebab stalls can be found. Bánh mỳ Döner Kebab, the Vietnamese version of the doner kebab, has some fundamental differences with the original doner kebab. First of all, pork is used instead of beef and lamb. Second, the meat is topped with sour vegetables and chili sauce.[43][44]
Doner kebab shops can be found in all cities across Austria. Kebabs (often referred to as "Döner") outsell burgers or the traditional Würstel (sausage).[45]
Belgium
In Belgium, the first doner kebabs were already served in the 1970s, brought by immigrants to the country. In the mining region, mainly beef or variants with pieces of chicken was used for the doner kebab. Doner kebabs with mutton and lamb were more likely to be found in other regions of Belgium.[citation needed]
In Finland, doner kebabs gained popularity after the 90s, when Turkish and other Middle-Eastern immigrants started to arrive in the country in considerable numbers, opening restaurants and importing their traditional dishes. Kebabs are generally seen as fast food, often served by late-night pizzerias.[46]
France
Turkish immigrants also brought doner kebab to France, where it became especially popular with the country's large North African population, in the 1980s.[47] A typical kebab consists of bread stuffed with doner meat shavings, lettuce, sliced tomato and onions, with a choice of sauce including sauce blanche, a mayonnaise-yogurt sauce. Kebabs are usually served with french fries, often stuffed into the bread itself. In Paris, this variation is called sandwich grec ("Greek sandwich").[48][49] Doner kebab is the third most popular fast food in France, next to hamburgers and pizza, with more than 10,000 kebab shops selling about 300 million a year.[47]
Germany
Döner, in Germany
In Germany, the earliest claim to the introduction of Turkish doner kebab dates to 1969, when Bursa native Nevzat Salim and his father started to sell Iskender Kebap in Reutlingen.[50] However, the Association of Turkish Döner Producers in Europe (ATDID) connects the wide popularization of the dish to the stand of Turkish guest workerKadir Nurman at West Berlin's Zoo Station in 1972, which helped establish the doner kebab sandwich as a fast food option.[50][26] Although the claims of multiple persons to have "invented" the doner may be hard to prove,[51] the further development of modern doner sandwich is connected to the city of Berlin.[52]
The doner kebap as it was first served in Berlin contained only meat, onions and a bit of salad.[53] Over time, it developed into a dish with abundant salad, vegetables, and a selection of sauces to choose from. Even orders placed in the Turkish language in Berlin will ask for the hot sauce using the German word scharf, flagging the hybrid nature of the Berlin style of doner kebap.[54]: 58 This variation served with pita bread has influenced the style of doner kebap in Germany and in other nations. A 2007 survey showed that many people consider the doner kebab to be the most characteristic food of Berlin.[54]: 54
Annual sales of doner kebabs in Germany amounted to €2.5 billion in 2010.[55] Beef or veal, and chicken, are widely used instead of the more expensive lamb. Turkey (Truthahn) and vegetarian versions have become increasingly popular.[56]
Tarkan Taşyumruk, president of the Association of Turkish Döner Producers in Europe (ATDID), provided information in 2010 that, every day, more than 400 tonnes of doner kebab meat is produced in Germany by around 350 firms. At the same ATDID fair, Taşyumruk stated: "Annual sales in Germany amount to €2.5 billion. That shows we are one of the biggest fast-foods in Germany." In many cities throughout Germany, doner kebabs are at least as popular as hamburgers or sausages, especially with young people.[55]
In 2011 there were over 16,000 establishments selling doner kebabs in Germany, with yearly sales of €3.5 billion.[57]
Netherlands
Kapsalon is a Dutch food item consisting of French fries topped with doner or shawarma meat, garlic sauce, and a layer of gouda cheese, baked or broiled until melted, and then subsequently covered with a layer of dressed salad greens and more sauce. The dish is usually served as fast food in a disposable metal tray. The term kapsalon means "hairdressing salon" or "barbershop" in Dutch, alluding to hairdresser Nathaniel Gomes who originated the dish when he requested his local kebab shop in Rotterdam to prepare it for him.[58]
United Kingdom
Introduced by Turkish immigrants, the doner kebab with salad and sauce is a very popular dish in the United Kingdom, especially after a night out.[51] The meat is sometimes sold on its own, but more commonly with chips (fries), in naan bread or in pita bread. German Doner Kebab is a Glasgow-based chain operating 100 restaurants in the UK, which specialises in the dish.[59]
A variation known as donair was introduced in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in the early 1970s.[24] There are competing claims about the origin, but according to Halifax resident Leo Gamoulakos, his father, Greek immigrant Peter Gamoulakos, started selling Greek-style gyros at Velos Pizza in the Halifax suburb of Bedford. It did not catch on with the public, so in 1972[24] he modified the customary pork and lamb recipe by using spiced ground beef, Lebanese flatbread, and inventing the distinctive sweet donair sauce made with condensed milk, vinegar, sugar, and garlic. He called it by the doner name rather than gyros, but it came to be pronounced, and spelled, as donair.[60][61][62] In 1973 Gamoulakos opened the first King of Donair restaurant on Quinpool Road in Halifax.[63] In 2015, Halifax named donair the city's official food.[25] Historically found only in Atlantic Canada, the dish's popularity has expanded to other parts of Canada in various forms.[64][60]
Mexico
Al pastor is a variation of doner kebab via Lebanese shawarma. Literally meaning "in the style of the shepherd", it references the lamb often used in shawarma, though it is normally made with pork.[65]
Doner kebab is best known in the United States in its Greek variation, now known as gyros. Numerous people have made competing claims to have introduced the dish sometime in the 1960s, and its mass production in the 1970s.[66] Originally known in Greece as ντονέρ (doner), by 1970 in the United States the newly coined name gyros was commonly in use,[67][68] though it was still known in some Greek restaurants by both names into the 1970s.[69][23] It was also available, possibly later, in some Turkish restaurants.[70][71][72] In recent years a number of restaurants and food trucks specializing in doner kebab have opened in various parts of the country; a substantial percentage are owned by German immigrants.[73][74]
With a multicultural population, the doner kebab in Australia competes with the Greek gyros and the Lebanese shawarma.[75] Kebab sellers are subject to strict government food safety regulations.[76]
A halal snack pack is a dish that originated in Australia. It consists of halal-certified doner kebab meat, chips (french fries), and sauces such as chili, garlic and barbecue. It is traditionally served in a styrofoam container, and has been described as a staple dish of takeaway kebab shops in Australia.[77][78] The name of the dish was selected by the Macquarie Dictionary as the "People's choice Word of the Year" for 2016.[79]
Health concerns
Health concerns regarding doner kebab, including the hygiene involved in overnight storage and re-heating of partially cooked meat, its quality, as well as high salt, fat, and calorie levels, have been reported in the media.[80][81][82] Some investigations have found poor-quality ingredients in doner kebab meat, or meat types other than what was advertised.[83][84]Food safety regulations in most developed countries address the dangers of bacteria in undercooked meat of all kinds sold to the public. Some have guidelines specific to doner kebab handling and preparation. Following several outbreaks of E. coli food poisoning, the Canadian government in 2008 introduced a number of recommendations, including that the meat should be cooked a second time after being sliced from the rotisserie.[85] In Germany, any doner kebab meat placed onto the rotisserie must be sold the same day. It is a violation of German health regulations to freeze partially cooked meat for sale at a later date.[86]
^Yerasimos, Marianna (2005). 500 Yıllık Osmanlı Mutfağı (500 Years of Ottoman Cuisine) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Boyut Kitapları Yayın Grubu. p. 307. ISBN975-23-0111-8.
^Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè, eds. (2000). The Cambridge World History of Food, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 1147. ISBN9780521402156 – via Google Books. Bursa is the town that gave birth to the world-famous doner kebab, meat roasted on a vertical revolving spit.
^Peter Heiner (2008). "Döner in Deutschland: Migration und kulinarischer Wandel". In Markus Ritter; Ralph Kauz; Birgitt Hoffmann (eds.). Iran und iranisch geprägte Kulturen: Studien zum 65. Geburtstag von Bert G. Fragner (in German). Wiesbaden: Reichert. p. 427. ISBN978-3-89500-607-4.
^Nail Tan (1990). "Kastamonu'nun ünlü yemek, yiyecek ve içecekleri" [Famous dishes, food and beverages of Kastamonu]. Türk halk kültürü araştırmaları [Turkish folk culture researches] (in Turkish). Vol. 1. Ankara: Halk Kültürünü Araştırma Dairesi [Department of Folk Culture]. p. 109 f.
^ abEberhard Seidel-Pielen (10 May 1996). "Döner-Fieber sogar in Hoyerswerda" [Doner fever even in Hoyerswerda]. Die Zeit (in German). Archived from the original on 16 May 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
^ ab"(unknown title)". New York. 1971. vol. 4. Retrieved 28 January 2018. doner kebab, also known as a gyro, the by-now-familiar compressed seasoned lamb cooked on a vertical rotisserie, slices of which are served as a sandwich on Greek pita bread
^"Türkiye'nin en iyi 10 Bursa kebapçısı" [Top 10 Bursa Kebabs in Turkey]. Hürriyet Daily News (in Turkish). Hürriyet Gazetecilik ve Matbaacılık A.Ş. 7 May 2004.
^Nurman, Kadir (20 September 2011). "Interview mit dem Erfinder des Döner: 'Echt nur mit Zwiebeln und Salat'" [Interview with the Inventor of the Döner: 'Genuine only with Onions and Lettuce']. Frankfurter Rundschau (Interview) (in German). Interviewed by Eva Dorothée Schmid. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.{{cite interview}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
Maren Möhring, "Döner kebab and West German Consumer (Multi-)Cultures", in Ulrike Lindner, et al., eds., Hybrid Cultures—Nervous States, 2010, ISBN9789042032286, p. 151-167
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