Lentil

This article is about the species Vicia lens. For the word "lentil" used in a broader sense, see legume.

Lentil
Puy (left), green (center), and red (right) lentils
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Rosids
Order:	Fabales
Family:	Fabaceae
Subfamily:	Faboideae
Genus:	Vicia
Species:	V. lens
Binomial name
Vicia lens (L.) Coss. & Germ. (1845)
Subspecies[1]
Vicia lens subsp. lamottei (Czefr.) H.Schaef., Coulot & Rabaute Vicia lens subsp. lens
Synonyms[1]
Cicer lens (L.) Willd. (1802) Ervum lens L. (1753) Lathyrus lens (L.) Bernh. (1800) Lens culinaris Medik. (1787) Lens esculenta Moench (1794), nom. superfl. Lens lens (L.) Huth (1893), not validly publ. Lentilla lens (L.) W.Wight (1912) Orobus lens (L.) Stokes (1812)

The lentil (Vicia lens or Lens culinaris) is a legume; it is an annual plant grown for its lens-shaped edible seeds, also called lentils. It is about 40 cm (16 in) tall, and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each.

Lentil seeds are used around the world for culinary purposes. In cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, where lentils are a staple, split lentils (often with their hulls removed) known as dal are often cooked into a thick curry that is usually eaten with rice or roti. Lentils are commonly used in stews and soups.

Botanical description

Illustration of the lentil plant, 1885

Name

Many different names in different parts of the world are used for the crop lentil.^[2] The first use of the word lens to designate a specific genus was in the 17th century by the botanist Tournefort.^[3] The word "lens" for the lentil is of classical Roman or Latin origin, possibly from a prominent Roman family named Lentulus, just as the family name "Cicero" was derived from the chickpea, Cicer arietinum, and "Fabia" (as in Quintus Fabius Maximus) from the fava bean (Vicia faba).^[4]

Systematics

The genus Vicia is part of the subfamily Faboideae which is contained in the flowering plant family Fabaceae or commonly known as legume or bean family, of the order Fabales in the kingdom Plantae.^[3]

Lentil plants in the field before flowering

The former genus Lens consisted of the cultivated L. culinaris and six related wild taxa. Among the different taxa of wild lentils, L. orientalis was considered to be the progenitor of the cultivated lentil and was generally classified as L. culinaris subsp. orientalis.^[2]

Lentil is hypogeal, which means the cotyledons of the germinating seed stay in the ground and inside the seed coat. Therefore, it is less vulnerable to frost, wind erosion, or insect attack.^[5]

The plant is a diploid, annual, bushy herb of erect, semierect, or spreading and compact growth and normally varies from 30 to 50 centimetres (12 to 20 in) in height. It has many hairy branches and its stem is slender and angular. The rachis bears 10 to 15 leaflets in five to eight pairs. The leaves are alternate, of oblong-linear and obtuse shape and from yellowish green to dark bluish green in colour. In general, the upper leaves are converted into tendrils, whereas the lower leaves are mucronate. If stipules are present, they are small. The flowers, one to four in number, are small, white, pink, purple, pale purple, or pale blue in colour. They arise from the axils of the leaves, on a slender footstalk almost as long as the leaves. The pods are oblong, slightly inflated, and about 1.5 centimetres (5⁄8 in) long. Normally, each of them contains two seeds, about 0.5 centimetres (1⁄4 in) in diameter, in the characteristic lens shape. The seeds can also be mottled and speckled. The several cultivated varieties of lentil differ in size, hairiness, and colour of the leaves, flowers, and seeds.

Lentils are self-pollinating. The flowering begins from the lowermost buds and gradually moves upward, so-called acropetal flowering. About two weeks are needed for all the flowers to open on the single branch. At the end of the second day and on the third day after the opening of the flowers, they close completely and the colour begins to fade. After three to four days, the setting of the pods takes place.^[2]

Types

Red and brown comparison

Types can be classified according to their size, whether they are split or whole, or shelled or unshelled. Seed coats can range from light green to deep purple, as well as being tan, grey, brown, black or mottled. Shelled lentils show the colour of the cotyledon which can be yellow, orange, red, or green.

Red-cotyledon types:

• Nipper (Australia)
• Northfield (Australia)
• Cobber (Australia)
• Digger (Australia)
• Nugget (Australia)
• Aldinga (Australia)
• Masoor dal (unshelled lentils with a brown seed coat and an orange-red cotyledon)
• Petite crimson (shelled Masoor lentils)
• Red Chief (light tan seed coat and red cotyledon)

Small green/brown-seed coat types:

• Eston Green
• Pardina (Spain)
• Verdina (Spain)

Medium green/brown-seed coat types

• Avondale (United States)
• Matilda (Australia)
• Richlea

Large green/brown-seed coat types:

• Boomer (Australia)
• Brewer's: a large brown lentil which is often considered the "regular" lentil in the United States^[6]
• Castellana (Spanish)
• Laird: the commercial standard for large green lentils in western Canada^[7]
• Mason
• Merrit
• Mosa (Spain)
• Naslada (Bulgaria)
• Pennell (United States)
• Riveland (United States)

Other types:

• Beluga: black, bead-like, lens-shaped, almost spherical, named for resemblance to beluga caviar.^[8] Called Indianhead in Canada.
• Macachiados: big yellow Mexican lentils
• Puy lentils (var. puyensis): Small dark speckled blue-green lentil from France with a Protected Designation of Origin name
• Alb-Leisa three traditional genotypes of lentils native to the Swabian Jura (Alps) in Germany and protected by the producers' association Öko-Erzeugergemeinschaft Alb-Leisa (engl. "Eco-producer association Alb-Leisa")

Production

Lentil production – 2022[9]
Country	(Millions of tonnes)
Canada	2.3
India	1.3
Australia	1.0
Turkey	0.4
Russia	0.3
World	6.7

In 2022, global production of lentils was 6.7 million tonnes. Canada produced the largest share, 2.2 million tonnes, or roughly 34% of the world's total output (table),^[9] nearly all (95%) of it in Saskatchewan.^[10] India was the world's second-largest producer, led by the states of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for roughly 70 percent of the national lentil production.^[11]

Cultivation

History

The cultivated lentil Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris was derived from its wild subspecies L. culinaris subsp. orientalis, although other species may also have contributed some genes, according to Jonathan Sauer (Historical Geography of Crop Plants, 2017).^[12] Unlike their wild ancestors, domesticated lentil crops have indehiscent pods and non-dormant seeds.^[12]

Lentil was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East and then spread to Europe and North Africa and the Indo-Gangetic plain. The primary center of diversity for the domestic Lens culinaris as well as its wild progenitor L. culinaris ssp. orientalis is considered to be the Middle East. The oldest known carbonized remains of lentil from Greece's Franchthi Cave are dated to 11,000 BC. In archaeobotanical excavations carbonized remains of lentil seeds have been recovered from widely dispersed places such as Tell Ramad in Syria (6250–5950 BC), Aceramic Beidha in Jordan, Hacilar in Turkey (5800–5000 BC), Tepe Sabz (Ita. Tepe Sabz) in Iran (5500–5000 BC) and Argissa-Magula Tessaly in Greece (6000–5000 BC), along other places.^[13]

Soil requirements

Lentils can grow on various soil types, from sand to clay loam, growing best in deep sandy loam soils with moderate fertility. A soil pH around 7 would be the best. Lentils do not tolerate flooding or water-logged conditions.^[3]

Lentils improve the physical properties of soils and increase the yield of succeeding cereal crops. Biological nitrogen fixation or other rotational effects could be the reason for higher yields after lentils.^[14]

Climate requirements

The conditions under which lentils are grown differ across different growing regions. In the temperate climates lentils are planted in the winter and spring under low temperatures and vegetative growth occurs in later spring and the summer. Rainfall during this time is not limited. In the subtropics, lentils are planted under relatively high temperatures at the end of the rainy season, and vegetative growth occurs on the residual soil moisture in the summer season. Rainfall during this time is limited. In West Asia and North Africa, some lentils are planted as a winter crop before snowfall. Plant growth occurs during the time of snow melting. Under such cultivation, seed yields are often much higher.^[14]

Seedbed requirements and sowing

The lentil requires a firm, smooth seedbed with most of the previous crop residues incorporated. For the seed placement and for later harvesting it is important that the surface is not uneven with large clods, stones, or protruding crop residue. It is also important that the soil be made friable and weed-free, so that seeding can be done at a uniform depth.^[3]

The plant densities for lentils vary between genotypes, seed size, planting time and growing conditions, and also from region to region. In South Asia, a seed rate of 30 to 40 kilograms per hectare (27 to 36 pounds per acre) is recommended. In West Asian countries, a higher seed rate is recommended, and also leads to a higher yield. The seeds should be sown 3 to 4 centimetres (1+1⁄4 to 1+1⁄2 in) deep. In agriculturally mechanized countries, lentils are planted using grain drills, but many other areas still hand broadcast.^[3]

Cultivation management, fertilization

In intercropping systems – a practice commonly used in lentil cultivation – herbicides may be needed to assure crop health.^[14] Like many other legume crops, lentils can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil with specific rhizobia.^{[citation needed]} Lentils grow well under low fertilizer input conditions, although phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and sulfur may be used for nutrient-poor soils.^[3]

Diseases

Main article: List of lentil diseases

Below is a list of the most common lentil diseases.

Fungal diseases

Fungal diseases

Alternaria blight	Alternaria alternata Alternaria sp.
Anthracnose	Colletotrichum lindemuthianum Colletotrichum truncatum
Aphanomyces root rot	Aphanomyces euteiches
Ascochyta blight	Ascochyta fabae f.sp. lentis = Ascochyta lentis = Didymella sp. [teleomorph]
Black root rot	Fusarium solani
Black streak root rot	Thielaviopsis basicola
Botrytis gray mold	Botrytis cinerea
Cercospora leaf spot	Cercospora cruenta Cercospora lentis Cercospora zonata
Collar rot	Sclerotium rolfsii = Athelia rolfsii [teleomorph] = Corticium rolfsii
Cylindrosporium leaf spot and stem canker	Cylindrosporium sp.
Downy mildew	Peronospora lentis Peronospora viciae
Dry root rot	Macrophomina phaseolina = Rhizoctonia bataticola
Fusarium wilt	Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis
Helminthosporium leaf spot	Helminthosporium sp.
Leaf rot	Choanephora sp.
Leaf yellowing	Cladosporium herbarum
Ozonium wilt	Ozonium texanum var. parasiticum
Phoma leaf spot	Phoma medicaginis
Powdery mildew	Erysiphe pisi = Erysiphe polygoni Leveillula taurica = Leveillula leguminosarum f. lentis = Oidiopsis taurica [anamorph]
Pythium root and seedling rot	Pythium aphanidermatum Pythium ultimum
Rust	Uromyces craccae Uromyces viciae-fabae = Uromyces fabae
Sclerotinia stem rot	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Spot blotch	Bipolaris sorokiniana
Stemphylium blight	Stemphylium botryosum = Pleospora tarda [teleomorph] Stemphylium sarciniforme
Wet root rot	Rhizoctonia solani = Thanatephorus cucumeris [teleomorph]

Nematodes, parasitic

Nematodes, parasitic

Cyst nematode	Heterodera ciceri
Reniform nematode	Rotylenchulus reniformis
Root knot nematode	Meloidogyne incognita Meloidogyne javanica
Root lesion nematode	Pratylenchus spp.
Stem nematode	Ditylenchus dipsaci

Viral diseases

Viral diseases

Bean (pea) leaf roll virus	Beet western yellows virus
Bean yellow mosaic	Bean yellow mosaic virus
Broad bean mottle	Broad bean mottle virus
Broad bean stain	Broad bean stain virus
Cucumber mosaic	Cucumber mosaic virus
Pea seedborne mosaic	Pea seed-borne mosaic virus

Use by humans

Processing

A combination of gravity, screens and air flow is used to clean and sort lentils by shape and density. After destoning, they may be separated by a color sorter and then packaged.

A major part of the world's red lentil production undergoes a secondary processing step. These lentils are dehulled, split and polished. In the Indian subcontinent, this process is called dal milling.^[3] The moisture content of the lentils prior to dehulling is crucial to guarantee a good dehulling efficiency.^[3] The hull of lentils usually accounts for 6 to 7 percent of the total seed weight, which is lower than most legumes.^[15] Lentil flour can be produced by milling the seeds, like cereals.

Culinary use

Split red lentils (size 6 mm)

Lentils can be eaten soaked, germinated, fried, baked or boiled – the most common preparation method.^[3] The seeds require a cooking time of 10 to 40 minutes, depending on the variety; small varieties with the husk removed, such as the common red lentil, require shorter cooking times (and unlike most legumes don't require soaking). Most varieties have a distinctive, earthy flavor. Lentils with husks remain whole with moderate cooking, while those without husks tend to disintegrate into a thick purée, which may enable various dishes. The composition of lentils leads to a high emulsifying capacity which can be even increased by dough fermentation in bread making.^[16]

Lentil dishes

Lentils are used worldwide in many different dishes. Lentil dishes are most widespread throughout South Asia, the Mediterranean regions, West Asia, and Latin America.

Dal tadka (lentil soup)

In the Indian subcontinent, Fiji, Mauritius, Singapore and the Caribbean, lentil curry is part of the everyday diet, eaten with both rice and roti. Boiled lentils and lentil stock are used to thicken most vegetarian curries. They are also used as stuffing in dal parathas and puri for breakfast or snacks. Lentils are also used in many regional varieties of sweets. Lentil flour is used to prepare several different bread varieties, such as papadam.

They are frequently combined with rice, which has a similar cooking time. A lentil and rice dish is referred to in Levantine countries as mujaddara or mejadra. In Iran, rice and lentil is served with fried raisin; this dish is called adas polo. Rice and lentils are also cooked together in khichdi, a popular dish in the Indian subcontinent (India and Pakistan); a similar dish, kushari, made in Egypt, is considered one of two national dishes.

Lentils are used to prepare an inexpensive and nutritious soup throughout Europe and North and South America, sometimes combined with chicken or pork. In Western countries, cooked lentils are often used in salads.^[3] In Italy, the traditional dish for New Year's Eve is Cotechino served with lentils.

Lentils are commonly eaten in Ethiopia in a stew-like dish called kik, or kik wot, one of the dishes people eat with Ethiopia's national food, injera flatbread. Yellow lentils are used to make a non-spicy stew, which is one of the first solid foods Ethiopians feed their babies.

Lentils were a chief part of the diet of ancient Iranians, who consumed lentils daily in the form of a stew poured over rice.

Nutritional value

Lentils, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	477 kJ (114 kcal)
Carbohydrates	19.54 g
Sugars	1.8 g
Dietary fiber	7.9 g
Fat	0.38 g
Protein	9.02 g
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV^† Thiamine (B1) 14% 0.169 mg Riboflavin (B2) 6% 0.073 mg Niacin (B3) 7% 1.06 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 13% 0.638 mg Vitamin B6 10% 0.178 mg Folate (B9) 45% 181 μg Vitamin B12 0% 0 μg Vitamin C 2% 1.5 mg Vitamin D 0% 0 IU Vitamin E 1% 0.11 mg Vitamin K 1% 1.7 μg Minerals Quantity %DV^† Calcium 1% 19 mg Copper 28% 0.251 mg Iron 18% 3.3 mg Magnesium 9% 36 mg Manganese 21% 0.494 mg Phosphorus 14% 180 mg Potassium 12% 369 mg Selenium 5% 2.8 μg Sodium 10% 238 mg Zinc 12% 1.27 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	69.64 g
Link to Full USDA Database entry
^†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[17] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[18]

Boiled lentils are 70% water, 20% carbohydrates, 9% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3+1⁄2 ounces), cooked lentils (boiled; variety unspecified) provide 114 calories, and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of folate (45% DV), iron (25% DV), manganese (24% DV), and phosphorus (26% DV). They are a good source (10% DV) of thiamine (15% DV), pantothenic acid (13% DV), vitamin B₆ (14% DV), magnesium (10% DV), copper (13% DV), and zinc (13%) (table). Lentils contain carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin, and polyunsaturated fatty acids.^[19]

Digestive effects

The low levels of readily digestible starch (5 percent) and high levels of slowly digested starch make lentils of potential value to people with diabetes.^[20][21] The remaining 65% of the starch is a resistant starch classified as RS1.^[22] A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapes digestion and absorption in the small intestine (therefore called "resistant starch").^[23] Additional resistant starch is synthesized from gelatinized starch, during cooling, after lentils are cooked.^[24]

Lentils also have antinutrient factors, such as trypsin inhibitors and a relatively high phytate content. Trypsin is an enzyme involved in digestion, and phytates reduce the bioavailability of dietary minerals.^[25] The phytates can be reduced by prolonged soaking and fermentation or sprouting.^[26] Cooking nearly completely removes the trypsin inhibitor activity; sprouting is also effective.^[25]

Breeding

Although lentils have been an important crop for centuries, lentil breeding and genetic research have a relatively short history compared to that of many other crops. Since the inception of The International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) breeding programme in 1977 significant gains have been made. It supplies landraces and breeding lines for countries around the world, supplemented by other programmes in both developing (e.g. India) and developed (e.g. Australia and Canada) countries. In recent years, such collaborations among breeders and agronomists are becoming increasingly important.^[2]

The focus lies on high yielding and stable cultivars for diverse environments to match the demand of a growing population.^[27] In particular, progress in quantity and quality as well as in the resistance to disease and abiotic stresses are the major breeding aims.^[2] Several varieties have been developed applying conventional breeding methodologies.^[28] Serious genetic improvement for yield has been made, however, the full potential of production and productivity could not yet be tapped due to several biotic and abiotic stresses.^[27]

Wild Lens species are a significant source of genetic variation for improving the relatively narrow genetic base of this crop. The wild species possess many diverse traits including disease resistances and abiotic stress tolerances. The above-mentioned L. nigricans and L. orientalis possess morphological similarities to the cultivated L. culinaris. But only L. culinaris and L. culinaris subsp. orientalis are crossable and produce fully fertile seed. Between the different related species hybridisation barriers exist. According to their inter-crossability Lens species can be divided into three gene pools:

1. Primary gene pool: L. culinaris (and L. culinaris subsp. orientalis) and L. odemensis
2. Secondary gene pool: L. ervoides and L. nigricans
3. Tertiary gene pool: L. lamottei and L. tomentosus

Crosses generally fail between members of different gene pools. However, plant growth regulators and/or embryo rescue allows the growth of viable hybrids between groups. Even if crosses are successful, many undesired genes may be introduced as well in addition to the desired ones. This can be resolved by using a backcrossing programme. Thus, mutagenesis is crucial to create new and desirable varieties. According to Yadav et al. other biotechnology techniques which may impact on lentil breeding are micro-propagation using meristamatic explants, callus culture and regeneration, protoplast culture and doubled haploid production.^[2]

There is a proposed revision of the gene pools using SNP phylogeny.^[29]

See also

• Dal
• Lentil soup
• Lentils with Swabian pasta
• Mujaddara
• National Lentil Festival

References

1. "Vicia lens (L.) Coss. & Germ." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
2. Shyam S. Yadav; David McNeil; Philip C. Stevenson, eds. (2007). Lentil: An Ancient Crop for Modern Times. Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-6312-1. OCLC 213090571.
3. Erskine, William, ed. (2009). The lentil: botany, production and uses. Wallingford, UK: CABI. ISBN 978-1-84593-487-3. OCLC 435462765.
4. Harold McGee, "On Food and Cooking", 2004 Edition, Scribners. ISBN 0-684-80001-2. pg. 483.
5. "Pulse Australia - Southern guide". pulseaus.com.au. Retrieved 18 November 2017.
6. Hall, Suzanne (17 March 2014). "Lentils 101: What To Do With Lentils And Why Bother". The Chalkboard. Retrieved 6 September 2024.
7. Slinkard, A. E.; Bhatty, R. S. (1979). "Laird lentil". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 59 (2): 503:504. doi:10.4141/cjps79-079.
8. "Cook's Thesaurus: Lentils". Foodsubs.com. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
9. "Production of lentils in 2022; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division. 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
10. "Lentil production". Lentils.org, Saskatchewan Pulse Growers. 2022. Retrieved 20 March 2022.
11. "India production of Lentil (Masur)". agriexchange.apeda.gov.in. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
12. Sauer, Jonathan D. (2017). Historical Geography of Crop Plants: A Select Roster. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-44062-2. The primary progenitor of the cultigen is evidently L. orientalis native to the Near East; the other species may have contributed some genetic diversity to the crop. L. culinaris (L. esculentus), the domesticate, differs from the wild species in having indehiscent pods, due to a single recessive gene, and nondormant seeds.
13. Jain, Shri Mohan; Al-Khayri, Jameel M.; Johnson, Dennis V. (2019). Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Legumes: Volume 7. Springer. ISBN 978-3-030-23399-0.
14. Shyam S. Yadav; David McNeil; Philip C. Stevenson, eds. (2007). Lentil: an ancient crop for modern times. Berlin: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-1-4020-6312-1. OCLC 213090571.
15. HUGHES, Joe S.; Swanson, Barry G. (1986). "Microstructure of lentil seeds (Lens culinaris)". Food Structure. 5: 241–246 – via digitalcommons.usu.edu.
16. Bora, Pushkar Singh (2002). "Functional properties of native and succinylated lentil (Lens culinaris) globulins". Food Chemistry. 77 (2): 171–176. doi:10.1016/s0308-8146(01)00332-6.
17. United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
18. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Retrieved 5 December 2024.
19. Zhang, Bing; Deng, Zeyuan; Tang, Yao; et al. (2014). "Fatty acid, carotenoid and tocopherol compositions of 20 Canadian lentil cultivars and synergistic contribution to antioxidant activities". Food Chemistry. 161: 296–304. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.04.014. ISSN 0308-8146. PMID 24837953.
20. Ramdath D, Renwick S, Duncan AM (2016). "The Role of Pulses in the Dietary Management of Diabetes". Can J Diabetes (Review). 40 (4): 355–63. doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2016.05.015. PMID 27497151.
21. Mudryj AN, Yu N, Aukema HM (2014). "Nutritional and health benefits of pulses". Appl Physiol Nutr Metab (Review. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't). 39 (11): 1197–204. doi:10.1139/apnm-2013-0557. PMID 25061763.
22. Kawaljit Singh Sandhu, Seung-Taik Lim Digestibility of legume starches as influenced by their physical and structural properties Elsevier, 16 March 2007
23. Tovar J (1996). "Bioavailability of carbohydrates in legumes: digestible and indigestible fractions". Arch Latinoam Nutr. 44 (4 Suppl 1): 36S – 40S. PMID 9137637.
24. Johnson, Casey R.; Thavarajah, Dil; Thavarajah, Pushparajah; Payne, Scott; Moore, Jayma; Ohm, Jae-Bom (2015). "Processing, cooking, and cooling affect prebiotic concentrations in lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus)". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 38: 106–111. doi:10.1016/j.jfca.2014.10.008.
25. Vidal-Valverde C, Frias F, Estrella I, Gorospe MJ, Ruiz R, Bacon J (1994). "Effect of processing on some antinutritional factors of lentils". J Agric Food Chem. 42 (10): 2291–2295. Bibcode:1994JAFC...42.2291V. doi:10.1021/jf00046a039.
26. Egli, I.; Davidsson, L.; Juillerat, M.a.; Barclay, D.; Hurrell, R.f. (1 November 2002). "The Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Phytase Activity and Phytic Acid Content of Grains and Seeds Potentially Useful for Complementary Feedin". Journal of Food Science. 67 (9): 3484–3488. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb09609.x. ISSN 1750-3841.
27. Kumar, Jitendra; Gupta, Sunanda; Gupta, Priyanka; Dubey, Sonali; Tomar, Ram Sewak Singh; Kumar, Shiv (2016). "Breeding strategies to improve lentil for diverse agro-ecological environments". Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding. 76 (4): 530. doi:10.5958/0975-6906.2016.00071.7. ISSN 0019-5200.
28. "BATS: Methods of Plant Breeding".
29. Wong, Melissa M. L.; Gujaria-Verma, Neha; Ramsay, Larissa; Yuan, Hai Ying; Caron, Carolyn; Diapari, Marwan; Vandenberg, Albert; Bett, Kirstin E. (27 March 2015). "Classification and Characterization of Species within the Genus Lens Using Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS)". PLOS ONE. 10 (3): e0122025. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1022025W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122025. PMC 4376907. PMID 25815480.

Further reading

• Alan Davidson, The Oxford Companion to Food. ISBN 0-19-211579-0

External links

• " Multilingual taxonomic information". University of Melbourne.
• Lentils – Country Production, Consumption, Exports, and Imports Statistics
• Alternative Field Crops Manual: Lentil