Adiponektin je polipeptid dug 244 aminokiseline. Postoje četiri različita područja adiponektina. Prva je kratka signalna sekvenca koja usmjerava sekreciju hormona izvan ćelije; sljedeća je kratka regija koja se razlikuje od vrste do vrste; treća je 65-aminokiselinska regija sa sličnošću s kolagenim proteinima; posljednja je globuloidni (loptasti) domen. Sve u svemu, ovaj protein ispoljava sličnost sa faktorima komplementa 1Q (C1Q). Međutim, kada je utvrđena trodimenzijska struktura globulske regije, uočena je zapanjujuća sličnost sa TNFα, unatoč nepovezanim proteinskim.[7]
Funkcija
Adiponektin je proteinski hormon koji modulira brojne metaboličke procese, uključujući regulaciju glukoze i oksidacijumasnih kiselina.[8] Adiponektin se izlučuje iz masnog tkiva (a također i iz placente u trudnoći[9]) u krvotok i vrlo je bogat plazmom u odnosu na mnoge hormone. Mnoge studije su pokazale da je adiponektin u obrnutoj korelaciji s indeksom tjelesne mase u populaciji pacijenata.[10] Međutim, metaanaliza nije uspjela potvrditi ovu povezanost kod zdravih odraslih osoba.[11] Koncentracije adiponektina u cirkulaciji povećavaju se tokom kalorijskih ograničenja kod životinja i ljudi, kao što su pacijenti sa anorexia nervosa. Ovo zapažanje je iznenađujuće, s obzirom na to da je adiponektin proizvod masnog tkiva. Međutim, nedavna studija sugerira da masno tkivo u kostnoj srži, koje se povećava tokom ograničenja kalorija, doprinosi povišenom razinom adiponektina u cirkulaciji, u ovom kontekstu.[12]
Adiponektin se izlučuje u krvotok, gdje na njega otpada približno 0,01% svih proteina u plazmi, sa oko 5-10 μg/mL (mg / L). U odraslih je koncentracija u plazmi veća kod žena nego kod muškaraca, a kod dijabetičara je smanjena u odnosu na one koji nisu dijabetičari. Smanjenje težine značajno povećava koncentraciju u cirkulaciji.[16]
Adiponektin se automatski povezuje u veće strukture. U početku se vežu tri molekule, da bi stvorile homotrimer. Proteinski trimeri nastavljaju se samostalno udruživati i formirati heksamere ili dodekamere. Poput koncentracije u plazmi, relativni nivoi struktura višeg reda su spolno dimorfni, gdje ženke imaju veći udio oblika visoke molekularne težine. Nedavna istraživanja pokazala su da je oblik visoke molekularne težine možda biološki najaktivniji oblik glukozne homeostaze.[17] Nadalje je utvrđeno da je adiponektin velike molekulske težine povezan sa manjim rizikom od dijabetesa, slične veličine povezivanja kao i ukupni.[18] Međutim, utvrđeno je da je bolest koronarnih arterija pozitivno povezana sa adiponektinom velike, ali ne i sa adiponektinom male molekulske težine.[19]
Adiponektin obavlja neke od svojih efekata smanjenja težine putem mozga. Ovo je slično djelovanju leptina;[20] > adiponektin i leptin mogu djelovati sinergijski.
Adiponektin promovira sinapsnu i memorijsku funkciju u mozgu.[21] Ljudi sa nižim nivoima adiponektina imaju smanjenu kognitivnu funkciju.[21]
Oni imaju različite tkivne specifičnosti u tijelu i različite afinitete prema različitim oblicima adiponektina. AdipoR1 je bogato zastupljen u skeletnim mišićima, dok je AdipoR2 takav u jetri.[6] Pokazano je da šest mjeseci vježbanja kod pacova udvostruči mišić AdipoR1.[6]
Receptori utiču na nizvodni cilj AMP kinaze, važne kontrolne tačke ćelijskog metabolizma. Ekspresija receptora korelira sa nivoom insulina, kao i sa smanjenim u mišjim modelima dijabetesa, posebno u skeletnim mišićima i masnom tkivu.[24][25] Univerzitet u Tokiju je, 2016. godine objavio da pokreće istragu o anonimnim tvrdnjama o izmišljenim i falsifikovanim podacima o identifikaciji AdipoR1 i AdipoR2.[26]
Otkriće
Adiponektin je prvi put okarakteriziran 1995. godine u razlikovanju adipocita 3T3-L1 (Scherer PE et al.).[27] U 1996., nađeno je da je kod miševa iRNK transkript najjače izražen u adipocitima,[5] a 2007. adiponektin je identificiran kao iRNK transkript koji je visoko eksprimiran u preadipocitima,[28] > (prekursori masnih ćelija) koji se diferenciraju u adipocite.[28][29]
Ljudski homolog je identificiran kao najzastupljeniji transkript u masnom tkivu. Suprotno očekivanjima, utvrđeno je da je adiponektin, iako se proizvodi u masnom tkivu, smanjen u gojaznih osoba.[8][10][20] Ova podregulacije nije u potpunosti objašnjena. Gen je lokaliziran u hromosomu, pozicija 3q27, regiji koja je istaknuta kao ona koja utiče na genetičku osjetljivost na dijabetes tipa 2 i gojaznost. Suplementacija različitim oblicima adiponektina uspjela je poboljšati kontrolu insulina, razinu glukoze u krvi i triglicerida na modelima miša.
Izviješteno je da ekstrakti slatkog krompira povećavaju nivo adiponektina i time poboljšavaju kontrolu glikemije kod ljudi.[46] Međutim, sistematski pregled zaključio je da nema dovoljno dokaza koji podržavaju konzumaciju slatkog krompira za liječenje dijabetes melitus tipa 2.[47]
Adiponektin je očigledno u stanju da pređe krvno-moždanu barijeru.[43] Međutim, o ovom pitanju postoje neusaglašeni podaci.[48] Kod čovjeka, poluživot adiponektina traje 2,5 sata.[49]
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^ abRenaldi O, Pramono B, Sinorita H, Purnomo LB, Asdie RH, Asdie AH (januar 2009). "Hypoadiponectinemia: a risk factor for metabolic syndrome". Acta Medica Indonesiana. 41 (1): 20–4. PMID19258676.
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^Coppola A, Marfella R, Coppola L, Tagliamonte E, Fontana D, Liguori E, Cirillo T, Cafiero M, Natale S, Astarita C (maj 2009). "Effect of weight loss on coronary circulation and adiponectin levels in obese women". International Journal of Cardiology. 134 (3): 414–6. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.12.087. PMID18378021.
^Fang X, Sweeney G (novembar 2006). "Mechanisms regulating energy metabolism by adiponectin in obesity and diabetes". Biochemical Society Transactions. 34 (Pt 5): 798–801. doi:10.1042/BST0340798. PMID17052201.
^Bonnard C, Durand A, Vidal H, Rieusset J (februar 2008). "Changes in adiponectin, its receptors and AMPK activity in tissues of diet-induced diabetic mice". Diabetes & Metabolism. 34 (1): 52–61. doi:10.1016/j.diabet.2007.09.006. PMID18222103.
^ abcdLara-Castro C, Fu Y, Chung BH, Garvey WT (juni 2007). "Adiponectin and the metabolic syndrome: mechanisms mediating risk for metabolic and cardiovascular disease". Current Opinion in Lipidology. 18 (3): 263–70. doi:10.1097/MOL.0b013e32814a645f. PMID17495599.
^ abHara K, Yamauchi T, Kadowaki T (april 2005). "Adiponectin: an adipokine linking adipocytes and type 2 diabetes in humans". Current Diabetes Reports. 5 (2): 136–40. doi:10.1007/s11892-005-0041-0. PMID15794918.
^ abcdVasseur F, Leprêtre F, Lacquemant C, Froguel P (april 2003). "The genetics of adiponectin". Current Diabetes Reports. 3 (2): 151–8. doi:10.1007/s11892-003-0039-4. PMID12728641.
^ abVasseur F, Meyre D, Froguel P (novembar 2006). "Adiponectin, type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome: lessons from human genetic studies". Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine. 8 (27): 1–12. doi:10.1017/S1462399406000147. PMID17112391.
^Grimshaw CE, Matthews DA, Varughese KI, Skinner M, Xuong NH, Bray T, Hoch J, Whiteley JM (august 1992). "Characterization and nucleotide binding properties of a mutant dihydropteridine reductase containing an aspartate 37-isoleucine replacement". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 267 (22): 15334–9. PMID1639779.
^Yuan J, Liu W, Liu ZL, Li N (2006). "cDNA cloning, genomic structure, chromosomal mapping and expression analysis of ADIPOQ (adiponectin) in chicken". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 112 (1–2): 148–51. doi:10.1159/000087527. PMID16276104.
^Nishio S, Gibert Y, Bernard L, Brunet F, Triqueneaux G, Laudet V (juni 2008). "Adiponectin and adiponectin receptor genes are coexpressed during zebrafish embryogenesis and regulated by food deprivation". Developmental Dynamics. 237 (6): 1682–90. doi:10.1002/dvdy.21559. PMID18489000.
^Hafiane A, Gasbarrino K, Daskalopoulou SS (2019). "The role of adiponectin in cholesterol efflux and HDL biogenesis and metabolism". Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental. 100: 153953. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2019.153953. PMID31377319.
^Okada-Iwabu M, Yamauchi T, Iwabu M, Honma T, Hamagami K, Matsuda K, Yamaguchi M, Tanabe H, Kimura-Someya T, Shirouzu M, Ogata H, Tokuyama K, Ueki K, Nagano T, Tanaka A, Yokoyama S, Kadowaki T (novembar 2013). "A small-molecule AdipoR agonist for type 2 diabetes and short life in obesity". Nature. 503 (7477): 493–9. Bibcode:2013Natur.503..493O. doi:10.1038/nature12656. PMID24172895.
^Ludvik B, Hanefeld M, Pacini G (juli 2008). "Improved metabolic control by Ipomoea batatas (Caiapo) is associated with increased adiponectin and decreased fibrinogen levels in type 2 diabetic subjects". Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism. 10 (7): 586–92. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1326.2007.00752.x. PMID17645559.
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