Straddling the banks of the river Isar north of the Alps, Munich is the seat of the Bavarian administrative region of Upper Bavaria, while being the most densely populated municipality in Germany with 4,500 people per km2. Munich is the second-largest city in the Bavarian dialect area, after the Austrian capital of Vienna.
The city was first mentioned in 1158. Catholic Munich strongly resisted the Reformation and was a political point of divergence during the resulting Thirty Years' War, but remained physically untouched despite an occupation by the Protestant Swedes.[5] Once Bavaria was established as the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1806, Munich became a major European centre of arts, architecture, culture and science. In 1918, during the German Revolution of 1918–19, the ruling House of Wittelsbach, which had governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich and a short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic was declared. In the 1920s, Munich became home to several political factions, among them the Nazi Party. After the Nazis' rise to power, Munich was declared their "Capital of the Movement". The city was heavily bombed during World War II but has restored most of its old town and boasts nearly 30,000 buildings from before the war all over the city.[6] Following the war, there was a great increase in population and economic power during the years of Wirtschaftswunder. The city hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics.
Today, Munich is a global centre of science, technology, finance, innovation, business, and tourism. Munich enjoys a very high standard and quality of living, reaching first in Germany and third worldwide according to the 2018 Mercer survey,[7] and being rated the world's most liveable city by the Monocle's Quality of Life Survey 2018.[8] Munich is consistently ranked as one of the most expensive cities in Germany in terms of real estate prices and rental costs.[9][10] In 2023, 30.1 percent of Munich's residents were foreigners, and another 18.5 percent were German citizens with a migration background from a foreign country.[11]
Munich's economy is based on high tech, automobiles, and the service sector, as well as IT, biotechnology, engineering, and electronics. It has one of the strongest economies of any German city and the lowest unemployment rate of all cities in Germany with more than one million inhabitants. The city houses many multinational companies, such as BMW, Siemens, Allianz SE and Munich Re. In addition, Munich is home to two research universities, and a multitude of scientific institutions.[12] Munich's numerous architectural and cultural attractions, sports events, exhibitions and its annual Oktoberfest, the world's largest Volksfest, attract considerable tourism.[13]
Munich was a tiny 8th-century friar settlement, which was named zu den Munichen ("to the monks"). The Old High German Muniche served as the basis for the modern German city name München.[14]
The ancient Roman road Via Julia, which connected Augsburg and Salzburg, crossed over the Isar south of Munich, at the towns of Baierbrunn and Gauting.[18] A Roman settlement north-east of Munich was excavated in the neighborhood of Denning.[19]
Post-Roman settlements
Starting in the 6th century, the Baiuvarii populated the area around what is now modern Munich, such as in Johanneskirchen, Feldmoching, Bogenhausen and Pasing.[20][21] The first known Christian church was built ca. 815 in Fröttmanning.[22]
Origin of medieval town
Munich in the 16th centuryPlan of Munich in 1642
The first medieval bridges across the river Isar were located in current city areas of Munich and Landshut.[15] The Duke of Saxony and Bavaria Henry the Lion founded the town of Munich in his territory to control the salt trade, after having burned down the town of Föhring and its bridges over the Isar.[23] Historians date this event at about 1158.[24] The layout of Munich city, with five city gates and market place, resembled that of Höxter.[25]
Henry built a new toll bridge, customs house and a coin market closer to his home somewhat upstream at a settlement around the area of modern old town Munich. This new toll bridge most likely crossed the Isar where the Museuminsel and the modern Ludwigsbrücke is now located.[26]
Otto of Freising protested to his nephew, Emperor Frederick Barbarosa (d. 1190). However, on 14 June 1158, in Augsburg, the conflict was settled in favor of Duke Henry. The Augsburg Arbitration mentions the name of the location in dispute as forum apud Munichen. Although Bishop Otto had lost his bridge, the arbiters ordered Duke Henry to pay a third of his income to the Bishop in Freising as compensation.[27][28][29]
The 14th June 1158 is considered the official founding day of the city of Munich. Archaeological excavations at Marienhof Square (near Marienplatz) in advance of the expansion of the S-Bahn (subway) in 2012 discovered shards of vessels from the 11th century, which prove again that the settlement of Munich must be older than the Augsburg Arbitration of 1158.[30][31] The old St. Peter's Church near Marienplatz is also believed to predate the founding date of the town.[32]
In 1175, Munich received city status and fortification. In 1180, after Henry the Lion's fall from grace with Emperor Frederick Barbarosa, including his trial and exile, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria, and Munich was handed to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, when the Duchy of Bavaria was split in two, Munich became the ducal residence of Upper Bavaria.
Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the city's position by granting it the salt monopoly, thus assuring it of additional income.
On 13 February 1327, a large fire broke out in Munich that lasted two days and destroyed about a third of the town.[33]
The growth of Munich was supplemented by its location on top of a gravel bed, where the Isar branched into Munich City Streams, which in turn provided power for many mills and industries within Munich.
In the 15th century, Munich underwent a revival of Gothic arts: the Old Town Hall was enlarged, and Munich's largest Gothic church – the Frauenkirche – now a cathedral, was constructed in only 20 years, starting in 1468.
Capital of reunited Bavaria
The Renaissance Antiquarium of the Residenz
When Bavaria was reunited in 1506 after a brief war against the Duchy of Landshut, Munich became its capital. The arts and politics became increasingly influenced by the court.[citation needed] The Renaissance movement beset Munich and the Bavarian branch of the House of Wittelsbach under Duke Albrecht V who bolstered their prestige by conjuring up a lineage that reached back to classical antiquity. In 1568 Albrecht V built the Antiquarium to house the Wittelsbach collection of Greek and Roman antiquities in the Munich Residenz.[35] Albrecht V appointed the composer Orlando di Lasso as director of the court orchestra and tempted numerous Italian musicians to work at the Munich court, establishing Munich as a hub for late Renaissance music.[36] During the rule of Duke William V Munich began to be called the "German Rome" and William V began presenting Emperor Charlemagne as ancestor of the Wittelsbach dynasty.[37]
Duke William V further cemented the Wittelsbach rule by commissioning the JesuitMichaelskirche. He had the sermons of his Jesuit court preacher Jeremias Drexel translated from Latin into German and published them to a greater audience.[38] William V was addressed with the epithet "the Pious" and like his contemporary Wittelsbach dukes promoted himself as "father of the land" (Landesvater), encouraged pilgrimages and Marian devotions.[39] William V had the Hofbräuhaus built in 1589. It would become the prototype for beer halls across Munich. After World War II the Residenze, the Hofbräuhaus, the Frauenkirche, and the Peterskirche were reconstructed to look exactly as they did before the Nazi Party seized power in 1933.[40]
Marienplatz, Munich, about 1650Banners with the colours of Munich (left) and Bavaria (right) with the Frauenkirche in the background
In 1634 Swedish and Spanish troops advanced on Munich. Maximilian I published a plague ordinance to halt an epidemic escalation.[42] The bubonic plague nevertheless ravaged Munich and the surrounding countryside in 1634 and 1635.[43] During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) troops again converged on Munich in 1647 and precautions were taken, so as to avoid another epidemic.[44]
In 1777 Bavarian lands were inherited by Karl Theodor. The new duke was disliked by the citizens of Munich for his supposedly enlightened ideas. In 1785 Karl Theodor invited Count Rumford Benjamin Thompson to take up residency in Munich and implement stringent social reforms. The poor were forced to live in newly built workhouses. The Bavarian army was restructured, with common soldiers receiving better food and reassurances that they would be treated humanely by officers.[46] Munich was the largest German city to lose fortification in the 1790s.[47] In 1791 Karl Theodor and Count Rumford started to demolish Munich's fortifications.[48] After 1793 Munich's citizens, including house servants, carpenters, butchers, merchants, and court officials, seized the opportunity, building new houses, stalls, and sheds outside the city walls.[49]
The establishment of Bavarian state sovereignty profoundly affected Munich. Munich became the center of a modernizing kingdom, and one of the king's first acts was the secularization of Bavaria. He had dissolved all monasteries in 1802 and once crowned, Maximilian Joseph generated state revenues by selling off church lands. While many monasteries were reestablished, Maximilian Joseph I succeeded in controlling the right to brew beer (Braurecht). The king handed the brewing monopoly to Munich's wealthiest brewers, who in turn paid substantial taxes on their beer production. In 1807 the king abolished all ordinances that limited the number of apprentices and journeymen a brewery could employ. Munich's population had swelled and Munich brewers were now free to employ as many workers as they needed to meet the demand.[50] In October 1810 a beer festival was held on the meadows just outside Munich to commemorate the wedding of the crown prince and princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen. The parades in regional dress (Tracht) represented the diversity of the kingdom. The fields are now part of the Theresienwiese and the celebrations developed into Munich's annual Oktoberfest.[51]
The Bavarian state proceeded to take control over the beer market, by regulating all taxes on beer in 1806 and 1811. Brewers and the beer taverns (Wirtshäuser) were taxed, and the state also controlled the quality of beer while limiting the competition among breweries.[52] In 1831 the king's government introduced a cost-of-living allowance on beer for lower-ranking civil servants and soldiers. Soldiers stationed in Munich were granted a daily allowance for beer in the early 1840s.[53] By the 1850s beer had become essential staple food for Munich's working and lower classes. Since the Middle Ages beer had been regarded as nutritious liquid bread (fließendes Brot) in Bavaria. But Munich suffered from poor water sanitation and as early as the 1700s beer came to be regarded as the fifth element. Beer was essential in maintaining public health in Munich and in the mid-1840s Munich police estimated that at least 40,000 residents relied primarily on beer for their nutrition.[54]
During the early to mid-19th century, the old fortified city walls of Munich were largely demolished due to population expansion.[56] The first Munich railway station was built in 1839, with a line going to Augsburg in the west. By 1849 a newer Munich Central Train Station (München Hauptbahnhof) was completed, with a line going to Landshut and Regensburg in the north.[57][58] In 1825 Ludwig I had ascended to the throne and commissioned leading architects such as Leo von Klenze to design a series of public museums in neoclassical style. The grand building projects of Ludwig I gave Munich the endearment "Isar-Athen" and "Monaco di Bavaria".[59] Between 1856 and 1861 the court gardener Carl von Effner landscaped the banks of the river Isar and established the Maximilian Gardens. From 1848 the Münchner Neueste Nachrichten was published as a regional newspaper in Munich. In 1857 the construction of the Maximilianeum was begun.[60]
By the time Ludwig II became king in 1864, he remained mostly aloof from his capital and focused more on his fanciful castles in the Bavarian countryside, which is why he is known the world over as the 'fairytale king'. Ludwig II tried to lure Richard Wagner to Munich, but his plans for an opera house were declined by the city council. Ludwig II nevertheless generated a windfall for Munich's craft and construction industries. In 1876 Munich hosted the first German Art and Industry Exhibition, which showcased the northern Neo-Renaissance fashion that came to be the German Empire's predominant style. Munich based artists put on the German National Applied Arts Exhibition in 1888, showcasing Baroque Revival architecture and Rococo Revival designs.[61]
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, life in Munich became very difficult, as the Allied blockade of Germany led to food and fuel shortages. During French air raids in 1916, three bombs fell on Munich.[citation needed]
In 1916, the 'Bayerische Motoren Werke' (BMW) produced its first aircraft engine in Munich.[69] The public limited company BMW AG was founded in 1918, with Camillo Castiglioni owning one third of the share capital. In 1922 BMW relocated its headquarters to a factory in Munich.[70]
After World War I, the city was at the centre of substantial political unrest. In November 1918, on the eve of the German revolution, Ludwig III of Bavaria and his family fled the city. After the murder of the first republican premier of BavariaKurt Eisner in February 1919 by Anton Graf von Arco auf Valley, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed.[71] The November 1918 revolution ended the reign of the Wittelsbach in Bavaria.[72] In Mein KampfAdolf Hitler described his political activism in Munich after November 1918 as the "Beginning of My Political Activity". Hitler called the short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic "the rule of the Jews".[73] In 1919 Bavaria Film was founded and in the 1920s Munich offered film makers an alternative to Germany's largest film studio, Babelsberg Studio.[74]
In 1923 Gustav von Kahr was appointed Bavarian prime minister and immediately planned for the expulsion of all Jews who did not hold German citizenship. Chief of Police Ernst Pöhner and Wilhelm Frick openly indulged in antisemitism, while Bavarian judges praised people on the political right as patriotic for their crimes and handed down mild sentences.[75] In 1923, Adolf Hitler and his supporters, who were concentrated in Munich, staged the Beer Hall Putsch, an attempt to overthrow the Weimar Republic and seize power. The revolt failed, resulting in Hitler's arrest and the temporary crippling of the Nazi Party (NSDAP).[76]
Munich was chosen as capital for the Free State of Bavaria and acquired increased responsibility for administering the city itself and the surrounding districts. Offices needed to be built for bureaucracy, so a 12-story office building was erected in the southern part of the historic city centre in the late 1920s.[72]
Munich again became important to the Nazis when they took power in Germany in 1933. The party created its first concentration camp at Dachau, 16 km (10 mi) north-west of the city. Because of its importance to the rise of National Socialism, Munich was referred to as the Hauptstadt der Bewegung ("Capital of the Movement").[77]
The NSDAP headquarters and the documentation apparatus for controlling all aspects of life were located in Munich. Nazi organizations, such as the National Socialist Women's League and the Gestapo, had their offices along Brienner Straße and around the Königsplatz. The party acquired 68 buildings in the area and many Führerbauten ("Führer buildings") were built to reflect a new aesthetic of power.[78] Construction work for the Führerbau and the party headquarters (known as the Brown House) started in September 1933.[79] The Haus der Kunst (House of German Art) was the first building to be commissioned by Hitler. The architect Paul Troost was asked to start work shortly after the Nazis had seized power because "the most German of all German cities" was left with no exhibition building when in 1931 the Glass Palace was destroyed in an arson attack.[80] The Red Terror that supposedly preceded Nazi control in Munich was detailed in Nazi publications; seminal accounts are that of Rudolf Schricker Rotmord über München published in 1934, and Die Blutchronik des Marxismus in Deutschland by Adolf Ehrt and Hans Roden.[81]
In 1930 Feinkost Käfer was founded in Munich, the Käfer catering business is now a world leading party service.[82]
On 8 November 1939, shortly after the Second World War had begun, Georg Elser planted a bomb in the Bürgerbräukeller in Munich in an attempt to assassinate Adolf Hitler, who held a political party speech. Hitler, however, had left the building minutes before the bomb went off.[85] By mid 1942 the majority of Jews living in Munich and the suburbs had been deported.[86]
Munich was the base of the White Rose, a student resistance movement. The group had distributed leaflets in several cities and following the 1943 Battle of Stalingrad members of the group stenciled slogans such as "Down with Hitler" and "Hitler the Mass Murderer" on public buildings in Munich. The core members were arrested and executed after Sophie Scholl and her brother Hans Scholl were caught distributing leaflets on Munich University campus calling upon the youth to rise against Hitler.[90]
The city was heavily damaged by the bombing of Munich in World War II, with 71 air raids over five years. US troops liberated Munich on 30 April 1945.[91]
Postwar
In the aftermath of World War II, Germany and Japan were subject to US Military occupation.[92] Due to Polish annexation of the Former eastern territories of Germany and expulsion of Germans from all over Eastern Europe, Munich operated over a thousand refugee camps for 151,113 people in October 1946.[93] After US occupation Munich was completely rebuilt following a meticulous plan, which preserved its pre-war street grid, bar a few exceptions owing to then-modern traffic concepts. In 1957, Munich's population surpassed one million. The city continued to play a highly significant role in the German economy, politics and culture, giving rise to its nickname Heimliche Hauptstadt ("secret capital") in the decades after World War II.[94] In Munich, the Bayerischer Rundfunk began its first television broadcast in 1954.[95]
In the early 1960s Dieter Kunzelmann was expelled from the Situationist International and founded an influential group called Subversive Aktion in Munich. Kunzelmann was also active in West Berlin, and became known for using situationist avant-garde as a cover for political violence.[99]
Munich hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics. After winning the bid in 1966 the Mayor of MunichHans-Jochen Vogel accelerated the construction of the U-Bahn subway and the S-Bahn metropolitan commuter railway. In May 1967 the construction work began for a new U-Bahn line connecting the city with the Olympic Park. The Olympic Park subway station was built near the BMW Headquarters and the line was completed in May 1972, three months before the opening of the 1972 Summer Olympics. Shortly before the opening ceremony, Munich also inaugurated a sizable pedestrian priority zone between Karlsplatz and Marienplatz.[100] In 1970 the Munich city council released funds so that the iconic gothic facade and Glockenspiel of the New City Hall (Neues Rathaus) could be restored.[101]
During the 1972 Summer Olympics 11 Israeli athletes were murdered by Palestinian terrorists in the Munich massacre, when gunmen from the Palestinian "Black September" group took hostage members of the Israeli Olympic team.[102]
Munich and its urban sprawl emerged as the leading German high tech region during the 1980s and 1990s. The urban economy of Munich became characterized by a dynamic labour market, low unemployment, a growing service economy and high per capita income.[96] Munich is home of the famous Nockherberg Strong Beer Festival during the Lenten fasting period (usually in March). Its origins go back to the 17th/18th century, but has become popular when the festivities were first televised in the 1980s. The fest includes comical speeches and a mini-musical in which numerous German politicians are parodied by look-alike actors.[104]
In 2007 the ecological restoration of the river Isar in the urban area of Munich was awarded the Water Development Prize by the German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste (known as DWA in German). The renaturation of the Isar allows for the near natural development of the river bed and is part of Munich's flood protection.[105] About 20 percent of buildings in Munich now have a green roof. Munich city council has been encouraging better stormwater management since the 1990s with regulations and subsidies.[106]
Munich lies on the elevated plains of Upper Bavaria, about 50 km (31 mi) north of the northern edge of the Alps, at an altitude of about 520 m (1,706 ft) ASL. The local rivers are the Isar and the Würm. Munich is situated in the Northern Alpine Foreland. The northern part of this sandy plateau includes a highly fertile flint area which is no longer affected by the folding processes found in the Alps, while the southern part is covered with morainic hills. Between these are fields of fluvio-glacial out-wash, such as around Munich. Wherever these deposits get thinner, the ground water can permeate the gravel surface and flood the area, leading to marshes as in the north of Munich.
The proximity to the Alps brings higher volumes of rainfall and consequently greater susceptibility to flood problems. Studies of adaptation to climate change and extreme events are carried out; one of them is the Isar Plan of the EU Adaptation Climate.[111]
Showers and thunderstorms bring the highest average monthly precipitation in late spring and throughout the summer. The most precipitation occurs in July, on average. Winter tends to have less precipitation, the least in February.
The higher elevation and proximity to the Alps cause the city to have more rain and snow than many other parts of Germany. The Alps affect the city's climate in other ways too; for example, the warm downhill wind from the Alps (föhn wind), which can raise temperatures sharply within a few hours even in the winter.
Being at the centre of Europe, Munich is subject to many climatic influences, so that weather conditions there are more variable than in other European cities, especially those further west and south of the Alps.
Munich is near the Alps. It has an oceanic climate (Cfb) in the Köppen climate classification. Annual variation in temperature can be significant, because there are no large bodies of water nearby. The winter in Munich is generally cold and overcast, and some Munich winters have significant snow. January is the coldest month. While winter averages remain only moderately cold, and relatively mild for an elevated inland location of Munich's latitude, inversion from the nearby Alps causes cold air to sink and result in temperatures below −15 °C (5 °F). In Munich the summer is usually pleasantly warm, with daytime temperatures averaging 25 °C (77 °F)
Munich is subject to active convective seasons and sometimes damaging events. The Alpine thunderstorm system moves along the mountain range, or detaches, heading east-north-east over the foothills of the Alps.[112]
At Munich's official weather stations, the highest and lowest temperatures ever measured are 37.5 °C (100 °F), on 27 July 1983 in Trudering-Riem, and −31.6 °C (−24.9 °F), on 12 February 1929 in the Botanic Garden of the city.[113][114]
Climate data for Munich (Dreimühlenviertel) (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1954–present)
In Munich, the general trend of global warming with a rise of medium yearly temperatures of about 1 °C (1.8 °F) in Germany between 1900 and 2020 can be observed as well. In November 2016 the city council concluded officially that a further rise in medium temperature, a higher number of heat extremes, a rise in the number of hot days and nights with temperatures higher than 20 °C (tropical nights), a change in precipitation patterns, as well as a rise in the number of local instances of heavy rain, is to be expected as part of the ongoing climate change. The city administration decided to support a joint study from its own Referat für Gesundheit und Umwelt (department for health and environmental issues) and the German Meteorological Service that will gather data on local weather. The data is supposed to be used to create a plan for action for adapting the city to better deal with climate change as well as an integrated action program for climate protection in Munich. With the help of those programs issues regarding spatial planning and settlement density, the development of buildings and green spaces as well as plans for functioning ventilation in a cityscape can be monitored and managed.[119]
Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions.
From only 24,000 inhabitants in 1700, the city population doubled about every 30 years. It was 100,000 in 1852, 250,000 in 1883 and 500,000 in 1901. Since then, Munich has become Germany's third-largest city. In 1933, 840,901 inhabitants were counted, and in 1957 over 1 million. Munich has reached 1.5 million in 2022.
Immigration
In December 2023, Munich had 1.58 million inhabitants; 477,855 foreign nationals resided in the city as of 31 December 2023 with 42.88% of these residents being citizens of EU member states, and 29.66% citizens in European states not in the EU (including Russia and Turkey).[120] Along with the Turks, the Croats are one of the two largest foreign minorities in the city, which is why some Croats refer to Munich as their "second capital."[121] The largest groups of foreign nationals were Turks (38,947), Croats (37,541), Italians (28,142), Greeks (24,843), Bosnians (24,161) Ukrainians (21,899), and Austrians (21,944).
About 45% of Munich's residents are not affiliated with any religious group; this ratio represents the fastest growing segment of the population. As in the rest of Germany, the Catholic and Protestant churches have experienced a continuous decline in membership. As of 31 December 2017, 31.8% of the city's inhabitants were Catholic, 11.4% Protestant, 0.3% Jewish (see: History of the Jews in Munich),[123] and 3.6% were members of an Orthodox Church (Eastern Orthodox or Oriental Orthodox).[124] About 1% adhere to other Christian denominations. There is also a small Old Catholic parish and an English-speaking parish of the Episcopal Church in the city. According to Munich Statistical Office, in 2013 about 6.9% of Munich's population was Muslim.[125]
Munich has the largest Uyghur population with about 800 (whole Germany about 1,600) people with Uyghur diaspora. Many of them fled to Munich due to the Chinese government and are exiled in Munich. Munich is also home to World Uyghur Congress, which is an international organisation of exiled Uyghurs.[126]
The current mayor of Munich is Dieter Reiter, he is Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). He was elected in 2014 and re-elected in 2020. Bavaria has been dominated by the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) on a federal, state, and local level since the establishment of the Federal Republic in 1949. The Munich city council is called the Stadtrat.
The most recent mayoral election was held on 15 March 2020, with a runoff held on 29 March, and the results were as follows:
The Munich city council (Stadtrat) governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 15 March 2020, and the results were as follows:
The governing coalition after the 2020 election consisted of the Greens and the SPD, as well as the allied Volt and Pink List, which had one seat each. While the Greens had gained the most seats in the city council, the mayor was from the SPD. The parties made an agreement including social and ecological goals and focusing on heightening stipulations for new development in the city. The Red-Green alliance is a reprise of the 1990-2014 coalition, which was interrupted by a six-year CSU-SPD majority from 2014-2020.[128][129]
There is no official division into districts. The number of districts is about 50, and if smaller units are counted as well, there are about 90 to 100 (see map). The three largest districts are Schwabing in the north (about 110,000 inhabitants), Sendling in the southwest (about 100,000 inhabitants), and Giesing in the south (about 80,000 inhabitants).[130]
Schloss Blutenburg (Blutenburg Castle) opened as a children's library in 2024,[134] but visitors may tour the late-Gothic Blutenburg Castle Church built on the same grounds.[135]
Despite Munich being the breeding ground for German Jugendstil, starting with the architect Martin Dülfer, Munich Jugendstil style was quickly submerged as historic trash. While the modernist architect Theodor Fischer was based in Munich, his influence on Munich underwhelmed. Prior to 1914 the city of Munich was under-industrialized. During the Weimar Republic, the Munich establishment was hostile to modernism. The TUM professor German Bestelmeyer favored a conservative style, and Jacobus Oud was rejected for the post of city building chief. Modernist exceptions include a series of post offices by Robert Vorhoelzer built in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Examples of avant-garde temporary constructions include the Wohnmaschine (Housing Machine) by Robert Vorhoelzer, as well as the Flachdachhaus (Flat Roof House) by Fritz Norkauer. Paul Schultze-Naumburg, and the Kampfbund enjoyed particular popularity.[136]
Munich is subject to a long-term residential development plan that is established by the city administration of Munich. The LaSie ("Langfristige Siedlungsentwicklung") was passed in 2011 in response to the acute housing crisis. LaSie is aligned with the strategic development plan passed for Munich in 1998 ("Perspektive München"). LaSie defines three priorities for the construction of residential housing in Munich. Existing housing estates, post-war low-density developments, and the suburban area are subject to densification ("Nachverdichtung"). Non-residential industrial areas are subject to conservation and will be turned into residential and mixed-use areas. On greenfield sites in the Munich periphery medium and large-scale housing estates are to be built so as to extend Munich's urban center.[137]
Other large green spaces are the Olympiapark, the Westpark and the Ostpark. The city's oldest park is the Hofgarten, near the Residenz, dating back to the 16th century. The site of the largest beer garden in town, the former royal Hirschgarten, was founded in 1780.[citation needed]
Munich is home to several professional Association football teams including the FC Bayern Munich. Other notable clubs include 1860 Munich, who currently play in the 3. Liga. Noticeably, FC Bayern Munich is the most successful club in Germany and it is also very reputed across Europe and the world. Munich hosted matches in the 2006 FIFA World Cup.[139]
Regular annual road running events in Munich are the Munich Marathon in October, the Stadtlauf end of June, the company run B2Run in July, the New Year's Run on 31 December, the Spartan Race Sprint, the Olympia Alm Crosslauf and the Bestzeitenmarathon.
Swimming
Olympia Schwimmhalle
Public sporting facilities in Munich include ten indoor swimming pools[142] and eight outdoor swimming pools,[143] which are operated by the Munich City Utilities (SWM) communal company.[144] Popular indoor swimming pools include the Olympia Schwimmhalle of the 1972 Summer Olympics, the wave pool Cosimawellenbad, as well as the Müllersches Volksbad which was built in 1901. Further, swimming within Munich's city limits is also possible in several artificial lakes such as for example the Riemer See or the Langwieder lake district.[145]
River surfing
Surfer on the Eisbach river wave
River surfing is a popular sport in Munich. The Flosskanal wave in the south of Munich is less challenging. A well visited surfing spot for experienced surfers is the Eisbach standing wave, where the annual Munich Surf Open is celebrated on the last Saturday of July.[146]
German is spoken and understood in and around Munich. While the German language has many dialects, so-called "Standard German" or "High German" is learned in schools and spoken among Germans, Austrians and in some parts of Switzerland. A speaker of a Low German dialect in Hamburg may find it difficult to understand the dialect of a Bavarian mountaineer.[147] The Bavarian dialects are recognized as regional language and continues to be spoken alongside Standard German.[148]
In 1903 Oskar von Miller assembled a group of engineers and industrialists, who chartered the Deutsches Museum. The Museum was built with the financial support of the German business and imperial nobility community, as well as the blessing of Wilhelm II, German Emperor.[149] The Deutsches Museum had its grand opening in 1925, but has undergone a reinvention recently. The Deutsches Museum now operates three locations. The original site in central Munich continues to expand its exhibits.[150]
The city has several important art galleries, most of which can be found in the Kunstareal. The Lenbachhaus displays works of the movement Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider), a Munich-based modernist art.[citation needed] Starting in 1970s, German municipalities started to respond to cultural tourism and invested in public museums. The Neue Pinakothek, like other German museums, was wholly reconstructed from 1974 until 1981.[151] The Pinakothek der Moderne lets the public see an eclectic mix of contemporary art and the principle attention of the permanent collection is Classical Moderns. But the displays are enhanced continuously with spectacular gifts from private collections.[152]
Munich was the centre of Krautrock in southern Germany, with many important bands such as Amon Düül II, Embryo or Popol Vuh hailing from the city. In the 1970s, the Musicland Studios developed into one of the most prominent recording studios in the world, with bands such as the Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, Deep Purple and Queen recording albums there. Munich also played a significant role in the development of electronic music, with genre pioneer Giorgio Moroder, who invented synthdisco and electronic dance music, and Donna Summer, one of disco music's most important performers, both living and working in the city. In the late 1990s, Electroclash was substantially co-invented if not even invented in Munich, when DJ Hell introduced and assembled international pioneers of this musical genre through his International DeeJay Gigolo Records label here.[164]
At the turn of the 20th century Schwabing was a preeminent cultural metropolis. Schwabing was an epicenter for both literature and the fine arts, with numerous German and non-German artists living there.[166]
Vladimir Lenin authored What Is to Be Done? while living in Schwabing. Central to Schwabing's bohemian scene were Künstlerlokale (Artist's Cafés) like Café Stefanie or Kabarett Simpl, whose liberal ways differed fundamentally from Munich's more traditional localities. The Simpl, which survives to this day, was named after Munich's anti-authoritarian satirical magazine Simplicissimus, founded in 1896 by Albert Langen and Thomas Theodor Heine, which quickly became an important organ of the Schwabinger Bohème. Its caricatures and biting satirical attacks on Wilhelmine German society were the result of countless of collaborative efforts by many of the best visual artists and writers from Munich and elsewhere.[citation needed]
In 1971 Eckart Witzigmann teamed up with a Munich building contractor to finance and open the Tantris restaurant in Schwabing. Witzigmann is credited for starting the German Küchenwunder (kitchen wonder).[167]
Karl Valentin, the cabaret performer and comedian, is to this day remembered and beloved as a cultural icon of his hometown. Between 1910 and 1940, he wrote and performed in many absurdist sketches and short films that were highly influential, earning him the nickname of "Charlie Chaplin of Germany".[169][170]
Liesl Karlstadt, before working together with Valentin, cross-dressed and performed cabaret with yodeling on stage and in Munich's Cafe-Theatres. The cabaret scene was crushed when the Nazis seized power in 1933 and Karlstadt was saved from Nazi sterilization by a doctor. Contemporary Munich cabaret still reverences 1920s cabaret, the Munich alternative rock band F.S.K. absorbs yodels.[171]
The Coopers' Dance (German: Schäfflertanz) is a guild dance of coopers originally started in Munich. Since early 1800s the custom spread via journeymen in it is now a common tradition over the Old Bavaria region. The dance was supposed to be held every seven years.[175]
Starkbierfest
March and April, for three weeks during Lent, celebrating Munich's "strong beer". Starkbier was created in 1651 by the local Paulinerkirche, Leipzigmonks who drank this 'Flüssiges Brot', or 'liquid bread'. It became a public festival in 1751 and is now the second largest beer festival in Munich. A Starkbierfest may be celebrated in beer halls and pubs.[citation needed]
Frühlingsfest
Held for two weeks at the Theresienwiese from the end of April to the beginning of May, the new local spring beers are served.[176]
Munich's Kocherlball (Cooks' Ball) is an annual event, to commemorate all servants, ranging from kitchenhands to cooks. The tradition started in the 19th century.[178]
Tollwood
Tollwood Winterfestival
Usually held annually in July and December, Olympia Park. The Tollwood Festival showcases fine and performing arts with live music, and several lanes of booths selling handmade crafts, as well as Organic food, mostly Fusion cuisine.[citation needed]
The Munich cuisine contributes to the Bavarian cuisine. Munich Weisswurst ("white sausage", German: Münchner Weißwurst) was invented here in 1857. It is a Munich speciality. Traditionally Weisswurst is served in pubs before noon and is served with sweet mustard and freshly baked pretzels.
Munich has 11 restaurants that have been awarded one or more Michelin Guide stars in 2021.[181]
Munich is known for its breweries and Weissbier (wheat beer). Helles, a pale lager with a translucent gold color, is the most popular contemporary Munich beer. Helles has largely replaced Munich's dark beer, known as Dunkel, which gets its color from roasted malt. It was the typical beer in Munich in the 19th century. Starkbier is the strongest Munich beer, with a high alcohol content of 6%–9%. It is dark amber in color and has a heavy malty taste. The beer served at Oktoberfest is a special type of beer with a higher alcohol content.
Wirtshäuser are traditional Bavarian pubs, many of which also have small outside areas. Biergärten (beer gardens) are a popular fixture in Munich's gastronomic landscape. They are central to the city's culture, and are an overt melting pot for members of all walks of life, regardless of social class. There are many smaller beer gardens, but some beer gardens have thousands of seats. Large beer gardens can be found in the Englischer Garten, on the Nockherberg, and in the Hirschgarten.
The Circus Krone based in Munich is one of the largest circuses in Europe.[182] It was the first and still is one of only a few in Western Europe to also occupy a building of its own.
Nightlife in Munich is located mostly in the boroughs Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt, Maxvorstadt, Au-Haidhausen, Berg am Laim and Sendling. Between Sendlinger Tor and Maximiliansplatz, on the edge of the central Altstadt-Lehel district, there is also the so-called Feierbanane (party banana), a roughly banana-shaped unofficial party zone spanning 1.3 km (0.8 mi) along Sonnenstraße, characterized by a high concentration of clubs, bars and restaurants, which became the center of Munich's nightlife in the mid-2000s.[183]
In the 1960s and 1970s, Schwabing was considered a center of nightlife in Germany, with internationally known clubs such as Big Apple, PN hit-house, Domicile, Hot Club, Piper Club, Tiffany, Germany's first large-scale discotheque Blow Up and the underwater nightclub Yellow Submarine,[164][184][185] and Munich has been called "New York's big disco sister" in this context.[164][186] Bars in the Schwabing district of this era include, among many others, Schwabinger 7 and Schwabinger Podium. Since the 1980s, however, Schwabing has lost much of its nightlife activity due to gentrification and the resulting high rents, and the formerly wild artists' and students' quarter developed into one of the city's most coveted and expensive residential districts, attracting affluent citizens with little interest in partying.[187]
Since the 1960s, the Rosa Viertel (pink quarter) developed in the Glockenbachviertel and around Gärtnerplatz, which in the 1980s made Munich "one of the four gayest metropolises in the world" along with San Francisco, New York City and Amsterdam.[188] In particular, the area around Müllerstraße and Hans-Sachs-Straße was characterized by numerous gay bars and nightclubs. One of them was the travesty nightclub Old Mrs. Henderson, where Freddie Mercury, who lived in Munich from 1979 to 1985, filmed the music video for the song Living on My Own at his 39th birthday party.[188][185][189]
Since the mid-1990s, the Kunstpark Ost and its successor Kultfabrik, a former industrial complex that was converted to a large party area near München Ostbahnhof in Berg am Laim, hosted more than 30 clubs and was especially popular among younger people from the metropolitan area surrounding Munich and tourists.[188][190] The Kultfabrik was closed at the end of the year 2015 to convert the area into a residential and office area. Apart from the Kultfarbik and the smaller Optimolwerke, there is a wide variety of establishments in the urban parts of nearby Haidhausen. Before the Kunstpark Ost, there had already been an accumulation of internationally known nightclubs in the remains of the abandoned former Munich-Riem Airport.[164][191][192]
Blitz Club on Museumsinsel
Munich nightlife tends to change dramatically and quickly. Establishments open and close every year, and due to gentrification and the overheated housing market many survive only a few years, while others last longer. Beyond the already mentioned venues of the 1960s and 1970s, nightclubs with international recognition in recent history included Tanzlokal Größenwahn, The Atomic Café and the techno clubs Babalu Club, Ultraschall, KW – Das Heizkraftwerk, Natraj Temple, MMA Club (Mixed Munich Arts), Die Registratur and Bob Beaman.[193] From 1995 to 2001, Munich was also home to the Union Move, one of the largest technoparades in Germany.[184]
Munich has the highest density of music venues of any German city, followed by Hamburg, Cologne and Berlin.[194][195] Within the city's limits are more than 100 nightclubs and thousands of bars and restaurants.[196][197]
Some notable nightclubs are: popular techno clubs are Blitz Club, Harry Klein, Rote Sonne, Bahnwärter Thiel, Pimpernel, Charlie, Palais and Pathos.[198][199] Popular mixed music clubs are Call me Drella, Wannda Circus, Tonhalle, Backstage, Muffathalle, Ampere, Pacha, P1, Zenith, Minna Thiel and the party ship Alte Utting.
Munich is a leading location for science and research with a long list of Nobel Prize laureates from Wilhelm Röntgen in 1901 to Theodor W. Hänsch in 2005.
The Ludwig Maximilian University (LMU)[200] and the Technische Universität München (TUM),[201] were two of the first three German universities to be awarded the title elite university by a selection committee composed of academics and members of the Ministries of Education and Research of the Federation and the German states (Länder).
Munich has the strongest economy of any German city according to a study[203] and the lowest unemployment rate (5.4% in July 2020) of any German city of more than a million people (the others being Berlin, Hamburg and Cologne).[204][205] Munich ranks third on the list of German cities by gross domestic product (GDP). In addition, it is one of the most attractive business locations in Germany.[203] The city is also the economic centre of southern Germany. Munich topped the ranking of the magazine Capital in February 2005 for the economic prospects between 2002 and 2011 in 60 German cities.
Munich is a financial center and global city that holds the headquarters of many companies. This includes more companies listed by the DAX than any other German city, as well as the German or European headquarters of many foreign companies such as McDonald's and Microsoft. One of the best-known newly established Munich companies is Flixbus.
Manufacturing
Munich holds the headquarters of Siemens AG (electronics), BMW (car), Traton (truck manufacturer, engineering), MTU Aero Engines (aircraft engine manufacturer), Linde (gases) and Rohde & Schwarz (electronics). Among German cities with more than 500,000 inhabitants, purchasing power is highest in Munich (€26,648 per inhabitant) as of 2007[update].[206] In 2006, Munich blue-collar workers enjoyed an average hourly wage of €18.62 (ca. $20).[207]
The breakdown by cities proper (not metropolitan areas) of Global 500 cities listed Munich in 8th position in 2009.[208] Munich is also a centre for biotechnology, software and other service industries. Furthermore, Munich is the home of the headquarters of many other large companies such as the injection moulding machine manufacturer Krauss-Maffei, and its arms manufacturing branch Krauss-Maffei & Wegmann, the camera and lighting manufacturer Arri, the semiconductor firm Infineon Technologies (headquartered in the suburban town of Neubiberg), lighting giant Osram, as well as the German or European headquarters of many foreign companies such as Microsoft.
Munich is the largest publishing city in Europe[210] and home to the Süddeutsche Zeitung, one of Germany's biggest daily newspapers. The city is also the location of the programming headquarters of Germany's largest public broadcasting network, ARD, while the largest commercial network, Pro7-Sat1 Media AG, is headquartered in the suburb of Unterföhring. The headquarters of the German branch of Random House, the world's largest publishing house, and of Burda publishing group are also in Munich.
Most Munich residents enjoy a high quality of life. Mercer HR Consulting consistently rates the city among the top 10 cities with the highest quality of life worldwide – a 2011 survey ranked Munich as 4th.[212] In 2007 the same company also ranked Munich as the 39th most expensive in the world and most expensive major city in Germany.[213] Munich enjoys a thriving economy, driven by the information technology, biotechnology, and publishing sectors. Environmental pollution is low, although as of 2006[update] the city council is concerned about levels of particulate matter (PM), especially along the city's major thoroughfares. Since the enactment of EU legislation concerning the concentration of particulate in the air, environmental groups such as Greenpeace have staged large protest rallies to urge the city council and the state government to take a harder stance on pollution.[214] Due to the high standard of living in and the thriving economy of the city and the region, there was an influx of people and Munich's population surpassed 1.5 million by June 2015, an increase of more than 20% in 10 years.[citation needed]
Transport
Munich has an extensive public transport system consisting of an underground metro, trams, buses and high-speed rail. In 2015, the transport modal share in Munich was 38 percent public transport, 25 percent car, 23 percent walking, and 15 percent bicycle.[215] Its public transport system delivered 566 million passenger trips that year.[216]
Munich is the hub of a developed regional transportation system, including the second-largest airport in Germany and the Berlin–Munich high-speed railway, which connects Munich to the German capital city with a journey time of about 4 hours. Flixmobility which offers intercity coach service is headquartered in Munich.
The trade fair Transport Logistic is held every two years at the Neue Messe München (Messe München International).
For its urban population of 2.6 million people, Munich and its closest suburbs have a comprehensive network of public transport incorporating the Munich U-Bahn, the Munich S-Bahn, trams and buses. The system is supervised by the Munich Transport and Tariff Association (Münchner Verkehrs- und Tarifverbund). The Munich tramway is the oldest existing public transportation system in the city, which has been in operation since 1876. Munich also has an extensive network of bus lines. The average amount of time people spend commuting to and from work with public transit in Munich on a weekday is 56 min.[citation needed]
The extensive network of subway and tram lines assists and complement pedestrian movement in the city centre. The 700m-long Kaufinger Straße, which starts near the Main train station, forms a pedestrian east–west spine that traverses almost the entire centre. Major spines and many smaller streets cover an extensive area of the centre that can be enjoyed on foot and bike. These attributes result from applying the principle of filtered permeability. Pedestrian and bike paths, which permeate the entire Munich city centre, go through public squares and open spaces for enjoyment. Munich city centre was subject to urban planning and has a comprehensive model for laying out neighborhoods and districts according to grid plan.[217]
Cycling has a strong presence in the city and is recognized as a good alternative. The growing number of bicycle lanes are widely used throughout the year. Cycle paths can be found alongside the majority of sidewalks and streets, although the newer or renovated ones are much easier to tell apart from pavements than older ones. A modern bike hire system is available within the area bounded by the Mittlerer Ring.
Cultural history trails and bicycle routes
Since 2001, historically interesting places in Munich can be explored via the List of cultural history trails in Munich (KulturGeschichtsPfade). Sign-posted cycle routes are the Outer Äußere Radlring (outer cycle route) and the RadlRing München.[218]
München Hauptbahnhof is the central railway station located in the city centre and is the long-distance station in Munich.[citation needed]
Munich Central Train Station serves about 450,000 passengers a day, which puts it on par with other large stations in Germany. Munich Central Train Station alongside München Ost railway station are two of the 21 stations in Germany classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 1 station.
The central mainline station is a terminal station with 32 platforms. The subterranean S-Bahn with 2 platforms and U-Bahn stations with 6 platforms are through stations.[citation needed]
The old air raid shelter next to platform 11 of Munich Central Train Station was an important distribution point for guest workers (Gastarbeiter) between 1960 and 1973. At peak more than 1,000 guest workers arrived per day, in total 1.8 million guest workers passed through Munich Central Train Station.[219]
Traffic is often very heavy in and around Munich. Traffic congestion are commonplace at the beginning and end of major Bavarian holidays. There are few "green waves" or roundabouts, and an abundance of construction sites.[citation needed]
Munich has introduced an environmental zone and was among the first German cities to require a green sticker for vehicles, these are an requirement when entering the city or driving in the wider surrounding area.[220]
Franz Josef Strauss International Airport (IATA: MUC, ICAO: EDDM) is the second-largest airport in Germany and seventh-largest in Europe after London Heathrow, Paris Charles de Gaulle, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, Madrid and Istanbul Atatürk. It is used by about 46 million passengers a year, and lies some 30 km (19 mi) north east of the city centre. It replaced the smaller Munich-Riem Airport in 1992. The airport can be reached by suburban train lines from the city. From the main railway station the journey takes 40–45 minutes. A magnetic levitation train (called Transrapid), which was to have run at speeds of up to 400 km/h (249 mph) from the central station to the airport in a travel time of 10 minutes, had been approved,[221] but was cancelled in March 2008 because of cost escalation and after heavy protests.[222]Lufthansa opened its second hub at the airport when Terminal 2 was opened in 2003.
Other airports
In 2008, the Bavarian state government granted a licence to expand Oberpfaffenhofen Air Station located west of Munich, for commercial use. These plans were opposed by many residents in the Oberpfaffenhofen area as well as other branches of local government, including the city of Munich, which took the case to court.[223] However, in October 2009, the permit allowing up to 9725 business flights per year to depart from or land at Oberpfaffenhofen was confirmed by a regional judge.[224]
Despite being 110 km (68 mi) from Munich, Memmingen Airport has been advertised as Airport Munich West. After 2005, passenger traffic of nearby Augsburg Airport was relocated to Munich Airport, leaving the Augsburg region of Bavaria without an air passenger airport within close reach.
Around Munich
Nearby towns
The Munich agglomeration sprawls across the plain of the Alpine foothills comprising about 2.6 million inhabitants. Several smaller traditional Bavarian towns and cities like Dachau, Freising, Erding, Starnberg, Landshut and Moosburg are today part of the Greater Munich Region, formed by Munich and the surrounding districts, making up the Munich Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about 6 million people.[4]
Arnold Schwarzenegger, former Governor of California, bodybuilder and actor, resided at Christophstr. 1 and worked at Rolf Putziger's gym at Schillerstr. 36 from 1966 to 1968
Donna Summer (1948–2012), singer, known as the "Queen of Disco", she was the most successful musical artist of the Disco era in the late 1970s and early 1980s
Heinrich Otto Wieland, Nobel Prize-winning chemist who successfully protected Jewish people
Stepan Bandera, Ukrainian nationalist, assassinated in October 1959
Notes
^It is a local party, founded in 1989 to support the queer community. It is represented in some Munich borough councils since 1990 (with its stronghold in the borough of Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt) and in the city council continuously since 1996.
^Stadtverwaltung, Landeshauptstadt München. "Bevölkerung". stadt.muenchen.de (in German). Archived from the original on 24 March 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
^Klaus Schwarz: Atlas der spätkeltischen Viereckschanzen Bayerns – Pläne und Karten. München, 1959
^Wolfgang Krämer: Geschichte der Gemeinde Gauting einschließlich der Hofmarken Fußberg und Königswiesen nebst Grubmühle, Reismühle und Gemeinde Stockdorf sowie der Schwaigen Kreuzing und Pentenried. Selbstverlag der Gemeinde Gauting, 1949.
^Willibald Karl (Hrsg.): Dörfer auf dem Ziegelland. Daglfing-Denning-Englschalking-Johanneskirchen-Zamdorf. Buchendorfer, München 2002, ISBN978-3-934036-90-1.
^Bernd Meier, Ludwig Maile: Heilig Kreuz Fröttmaning 815–1990. Kirchenverwaltung und Pfarrgemeinderat St. Albert, München 1990, S. 13–15.
^William T. Bogart (2006). Don't Call It Sprawl: Metropolitan Structure in the 21st Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 161. ISBN9781139458719.
^John Freed (2016). Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth. Yale University Press. p. 167. ISBN9780300221169.
^John Freed (2016). Frederick Barbarossa: The Prince and the Myth. Yale University Press. p. 168. ISBN9780300221169.
^Peter Klimesch: Münchner Isarinseln – Geschichte, Gegenwart und Zukunft. (Zum nördlichen Teil der Museumsinsel mit dem Vater-Rhein-Brunnen.) In: Ralf Sartori (Hrsg.): Die neue Isar, Band 4. München 2012. ISBN978-3-86520-447-9.
^Wolf-Armin Freiherr von Reitzenstein (2006), "München", Lexikon bayerischer Ortsnamen. Herkunft und Bedeutung. Oberbayern, Niederbayern, Oberpfalz (in German), München: C. H. Beck, p. 171, ISBN978-3-406-55206-9
^Deutsches Ortsnamenbuch. Hrsg. von Manfred Niemeyer. De Gruyter, Berlin/Boston 2012, S. 420.
^Fritz Lutz: Oberföhring. Zur 75-Jahrfeier der Eingemeindung Oberföhrings. Buchendorf: Buchendorfer Verlag 1988.
^Archaeological Showcase at the Münchner Stadtmuseum: Discoveries from the Marienhof excavations (2011/2012). 7 November 2021.
^Ausgrabungen und Dokumentation – Vergangenheit aus dem Boden. Zweite Stammstrecke München. Deutsche Bahn Website, 5 May 2021
^Christian Behrer: Das Unterirdische München. Stadtkernarchäologie in der bayerischen Landeshauptstadt. Buchendorfer Verlag, München 2001, ISBN3-934036-40-6, Kap. 4.2.1: St. Peter, S. 61–83.
^Bayerischer Architekten- und Ingenieurverein (Hrsg.): München und seine Bauten. BoD – Books on Demand, 2012, S. 48/49
^Wie die Pest die Münchner dahinraffte – Süddeutsche Zeitung (12. Dezember 2018), 13 December 2018
^Andrew L. Thomas (2010). A House Divided: Wittelsbach Confessional Court Cultures in the Holy Roman Empire, C. 1550–1650. BRILL. p. 88. ISBN9789004183704.
^Andrew L. Thomas (2010). A House Divided: Wittelsbach Confessional Court Cultures in the Holy Roman Empire, C. 1550–1650. BRILL. p. 90. ISBN9789004183704.
^Andrew L. Thomas (2010). A House Divided: Wittelsbach Confessional Court Cultures in the Holy Roman Empire, C. 1550–1650. BRILL. p. 88. ISBN9789004183704.
^Andrew L. Thomas (2010). A House Divided: Wittelsbach Confessional Court Cultures in the Holy Roman Empire, C. 1550–1650. BRILL. p. 92. ISBN9789004183704.
^Andrew L. Thomas (2010). A House Divided: Wittelsbach Confessional Court Cultures in the Holy Roman Empire, C. 1550–1650. BRILL. p. 101. ISBN9789004183704.
^Charles E. Greer; Daniel C. Knudsen; Michelle M. Metro-Roland (2016). Landscape, Tourism, and Meaning. Taylor & Francis. p. 69. ISBN9781317108139.
^George Henry Townsend (1877). "Munich". Manual of Dates (5th ed.). Frederick Warne & Co. hdl:2027/wu.89097349427 – via HathiTrust.
^Sigrun Haude (2021). Coping with Life During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). Brill. p. 104. ISBN9789004467385.
^Sigrun Haude (2021). Coping with Life During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Brill. p. 105. ISBN9789004467385.
^Sigrun Haude (2021). Coping with Life During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Brill. pp. 108–109. ISBN9789004467385.
^Brian A. Pavlac; Elizabeth S. Lott (2019). The Holy Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 85. ISBN9781440848568.
^Yair Mintzker (2012). The Defortification of the German City, 1689–1866. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN9781108577755.
^Yair Mintzker (2012). The Defortification of the German City, 1689–1866. Cambridge University Press. p. 106. ISBN9781108577755.
^Yair Mintzker (2012). The Defortification of the German City, 1689–1866. Cambridge University Press. p. 112. ISBN9781108577755.
^Yair Mintzker (2012). The Defortification of the German City, 1689–1866. Cambridge University Press. p. 113. ISBN9781108577755.
^Alexander Cowan; Jill Steward (2013). The City and the Senses: Urban Culture Since 1500. Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 136–137. ISBN9781409479604.
^Sara Hume (2022). Regional Dress: Between Tradition and Modernity. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 169–170. ISBN9781350147997.
^Alexander Cowan; Jill Steward (2013). The City and the Senses: Urban Culture Since 1500. Ashgate Publishing Limited. p. 140. ISBN9781409479604.
^Alexander Cowan; Jill Steward (2013). The City and the Senses: Urban Culture Since 1500. Ashgate Publishing Limited. p. 149. ISBN9781409479604.
^Alexander Cowan; Jill Steward (2013). The City and the Senses: Urban Culture Since 1500. Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 143–144. ISBN9781409479604.
^Christina Koulouri (2022). Historical Memory in Greece, 1821–1930: Performing the Past in the Present. Taylor & Francis. ISBN9781000638653.
^Brigitte Huber: Mauern, Tore Bastionen. München und seine Befestigungen. Hrsg.: Historischer Verein von Oberbayern. Volk Verlag, München 2015, ISBN978-3-86222-182-0
^Bernhard Ücker: Die bayrische Eisenbahn 1835–1920. Süddeutscher Verlag, München, ISBN3-7991-6255-0
^Sabine Wieber (2021). Jugendstil Women and the Making of Modern Design. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 6–7. ISBN9781350088542.
^Christophe Girot; Dora Imhof (2016). Thinking the Contemporary Landscape. Princeton Architectural Press. p. 56. ISBN9781616895594.
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^Sabine Wieber (2021). Jugendstil Women and the Making of Modern Design. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 12. ISBN9781350088542.
^Sabine Wieber (2021). Jugendstil Women and the Making of Modern Design. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 15. ISBN9781350088542.
^Sabine Wieber (2021). Jugendstil Women and the Making of Modern Design. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 25. ISBN9781350088542.
^Maiken Umbach (2009). German Cities and Bourgeois Modernism, 1890-1924. BOUP Oxford. p. 120. ISBN9780199557394.
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^David Ian Hall (2021). Hitler's Munich: The Capital of the Nazi Movement. Pen & Sword Books Limited. p. 176. ISBN9781526704955.
^David Ian Hall (2021). Hitler's Munich: The Capital of the Nazi Movement. Pen & Sword Books Limited. p. 178. ISBN9781526704955.
^David Ian Hall (2021). Hitler's Munich: The Capital of the Nazi Movement. Pen & Sword Books Limited. p. 177. ISBN9781526704955.
^Christopher Dillon (2016). Dachau and the SS: A Schooling in Violence. OUP Oxford. ISBN9780192513342.
^Adrienne Steffen; Susanne Doppler, eds. (2020). Case Studies on Food Experiences in Marketing, Retail, and Events. Elsevier Science. p. 137. ISBN9780128177938.
^Cole, Robert A. "Appeasing Hitler: The Munich Crisis of 1938: A Teaching and Learning Resource," New England Journal of History (2010) 66#2 pp 1–30
^Masako Shibata (2005). Japan and Germany Under the U.S. Occupation. Lexington Books. p. 1. ISBN9780739111499.
^Walter Ziegler. "Flüchtlinge und Vertriebene". historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de. Archived from the original on 25 November 2023. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
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^Shmuel Burmil; Ruth Enis (2011). The Changing Landscape of a Utopia. Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft. p. 143. ISBN9783884622841.
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^P. Morris (2016). Science for the Nation: Perspectives on the History of the Science Museum. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 297. ISBN9780230283145.
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^Georgina S Walker (2019). The Private Collector's Museum: Public Good Versus Private Gain. Taylor & Francis. ISBN9781351370516.
^Cathrin Klingsöhr-Leroy; Jane Bainbridge (2005). Modern art at the Pinakothek der Moderne Munich. Scala. p. 8. ISBN9783406531880.
^Charles Youmans, ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Richard Strauss. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN9781139828529.
^Knell, Heiner; Kruft, H. W. (June 1972). "Re-opening of the Munich Glyptothek". Burlington Magazine. 114: 431.
^"Aegina, sculptures". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (6 ed.): 1. March 2021.
^Rankin, Elizabeth (July 2014). "Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, Glyptothek, and Alte Pinakothek, Munich". Museum Worlds. 2 (1): 207–210. doi:10.3167/armw.2014.020113.
^Reeves, Nicholas (January 2015). "A Rare Mechanical Figure from Ancient Egypt". Metropolitan Museum Journal. 50 (1): 42–61. doi:10.1086/685672. S2CID192400311.
^ abcdHecktor, Mirko; von Uslar, Moritz; Smith, Patti; Neumeister, Andreas (1 November 2008). Mjunik Disco – from 1949 to now (in German). Blumenbar. ISBN978-3-936738-47-6.
^Mark W. Rectanus (2002). Culture Incorporated: Museums, Artists, and Corporate Sponsorships. University of Minnesota Press. p. 146. ISBN9780816638529.
^Christel Lane (2014). The Cultivation of Taste: Chefs and the Organization of Fine Dining. OUP Oxford. p. 34. ISBN9780191631474.
^Christian Lenz, ed. (2007). The Neue Pinakothek, Munich. Beck. p. 41. ISBN9783406512728.
^"Fall 2023 Undergraduate Courses". 1 January 2024. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ abErtl, Christian (2010). Macht's den Krach leiser! Popkultur in München von 1945 bis heute [Turn down the noise! Pop culture in Munich from 1945 to today] (in German). Allitera Verlag. ISBN978-3-86906-100-9.
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Canadian politician His Honour the HonourableArthur LeBlancONS KCLeBlanc in 202033rd Lieutenant Governor of Nova ScotiaIncumbentAssumed office June 28, 2017MonarchsElizabeth IICharles IIIGovernors General David Johnston Julie Payette Mary Simon PremierStephen McNeilIain RankinTim HoustonPreceded byJohn James GrantJustice of the Supreme Court of Nova ScotiaIn office1998 – June 28, 2017Nominated byJean Chrétien Personal detailsBornArthur Joseph LeBlanc1943 (age 79&#...
Metternich en un retrato de Thomas Lawrence. Las Memorias de Metternich constituyen una obra publicada por primera entre 1880 y 1884, consistente en la publicación de diversos escritos de Klemens , príncipe de Metternich, importante político de la Europa de la primera mitad del siglo XIX. Historia La obra sería publicada bajo los auspicios del hijo mayor del protagonista, Richard von Metternich, fruto de su segundo matrimonio con Maria Antonia von Leykam. Aunque en su mayor parte se ...
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The GameCube and controller (Indigo color) This is a complete list of all GameCube games. The GameCube is Nintendo's fourth home video game console, released during the sixth generation of video games. It is the successor to the Nintendo 64, and was first launched in Japan on September 14, 2001, followed by a launch in North America on November 18, 2001, and a launch in the PAL regions in May 2002. The successor to the GameCube is the Wii, which was first released in North America on November...
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ليونور، أميرة أستورياس معلومات شخصية الميلاد 10 سبتمبر 1423 بلد الوليد الوفاة 22 أغسطس 1425 (1 سنة) كاسترومونتي مواطنة تاج قشتالة الأب خوان الثاني ملك قشتالة الأم ماريا من أراغون، ملكة قشتالة إخوة وأخوات إنريكي الرابع ملك قشتالة، وألفونسو، أمير أست...
Ytri(III) nitrat Danh pháp IUPACYttrium(III) nitrateTên khácYttrium nitrateNhận dạngSố CAS10361-93-0PubChem159283Ảnh Jmol-3DảnhSMILES đầy đủ [N+](=O)([O-])[O-].[N+](=O)([O-])[O-].[N+](=O)([O-])[O-].[Y+3] InChI đầy đủ 1S/3NO3.Y/c3*2-1(3)4;/q3*-1;+3 Thuộc tínhCông thức phân tửY(NO3)3Khối lượng mol274.927Bề ngoàiTinh thể không màuĐiểm nóng chảy Điểm sôi Độ hòa tan trong nướcHòa tan Trừ khi có ghi chú khác,...
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Este artículo o sección necesita referencias que aparezcan en una publicación acreditada.Este aviso fue puesto el 25 de marzo de 2011. Huesos de los dedos del pie Falanges del pie.Latín [TA]: os digitorum pedis;[TA]: phalanges digitorum pedisTA A02.5.18.001Sinónimos falanges del pie Enlaces externosGray pág.276[editar datos en Wikidata] Los huesos de los dedos del pie o falanges del pie son huesos largos, en número de tres para cada dedo (excepto el gordo, que tiene sólo dos...
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Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!
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