The Pioneer Column, a military volunteer force of settlers organised by Cecil Rhodes, founded the city on 12 September 1890 as a fort.[11][12] They originally named the city Fort Salisbury after The 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, then-Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and it subsequently became known simply as Salisbury. The Salisbury Polo Club was formed in 1896.[13] Salisbury was declared a municipality in 1897, and it became a city in 1935.[14]
At the time of the city's founding, its site and surroundings were poorly drained. The earliest development was on sloping ground along the left bank of a stream, in an area where the Julius Nyerere Way industrial road runs today. The first area to be fully drained was near the head of the stream and was named Causeway. Causeway is now the site of many important government buildings, including the Senate House and the Office of the Prime Minister. After the position was abolished in January 1988, the office was renamed for the use of the President.[15]
Jameson Avenue, Salisbury (now Samora Machel Avenue, Harare) in 1970
The optimism and prosperity of this period proved to be short-lived, as the Federation collapsed, which hindered the city's prosperity.[17][additional citation(s) needed]
1960s and 1970s
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The city initially boomed under a wave of optimism and investment that followed the country's independence in 1980. The name of the city was changed to Harare on 18 April 1982, the second anniversary of Zimbabwean independence, taking its name from the village near Harare Kopje of the Shona chief Neharawa, whose nickname was "he who does not sleep".[19] Before independence, "Harare" was the name of the black residential area now known as Mbare.[citation needed]
Significant investment in education and healthcare produced a confident and growing middle class, evidenced by the rise of firms such as Econet Global and innovative design and architecture, exemplified by the Eastgate Centre. A notable symbol of this era in Harare's history is the New Reserve Bank Tower, one of the city's major landmarks.[citation needed]
However, by 1992, Harare began to experience an economic downturn and the government responded by enacting neoliberal reforms. These policies provoked a boom in banking, finance and agriculture, but also led to significant job losses in manufacturing, thereby greatly increasing unemployment and income inequality. Domestic firms struggled to compete with foreign imports, leading to the collapse of several institutions, particularly in the textile industry.[17]
Economic difficulties and hyperinflation (1999–2008)
In the early 21st century, Harare was adversely affected by the political and economic crises that plagued Zimbabwe, particularly following the contested 2002 presidential election and 2005 parliamentary elections. The elected council was replaced by a government-appointed commission due to alleged inefficiency.[citation needed] Still, essential services such as rubbish collection and street repairs rapidly worsened, and are now virtually non-existent in poorer parts of the city.[citation needed] In May 2006, Zimbabwean newspaper Financial Gazette described the city in an editorial as a "sunshine city-turned-sewage farm".[22] In 2009, Harare was voted the world's toughest city to live in according to the Economist Intelligence Unit's livability poll, which factors in stability, healthcare, culture and environment, education, and infrastructure.[23] The situation was unchanged in 2011, according to the same poll.[24]
Operation Murambatsvina
In May 2005, the Zimbabwean government demolished shanties, illegal vending sites, and backyard cottages in Harare, Epworth and other cities in Operation Murambatsvina[25] ("Drive Out Trash"). It was widely alleged[weasel words] that the true purpose of the campaign was to make sure shantie towns would not develop in any urban areas that might favor the Movement for Democratic Change, and to reduce the likelihood of mass action against the government by driving people out of the cities.[citation needed] The government claimed its actions were necessitated by a rise of criminality and disease.[citation needed] This was followed by Operation Garikayi/Hlalani Kuhle (Operation "Better Living") a year later, which consisted of building poor-quality concrete housing.[citation needed]
Economic uncertainty
In late March 2010, Harare's Joina City Tower was finally opened after fourteen years of delayed construction, marketed as 'Harare's New Pride'.[26] Initially, uptake of space in the tower was low, with office occupancy at only 3% in October 2011.[27] By May 2013, office occupancy had risen to around half, with all the retail space occupied.[28][relevant?]
The Economist Intelligence Unit rated Harare as the world's least livable city (out of 140 surveyed) in February 2011,[29] rising to 137th out of 140 in August 2012.[30]
In March 2015, Harare City Council planned a two-year project to install 4,000 solar street lights, starting in the central business district, at a cost of $15,000,000.[31]
In November 2017, the biggest demonstration in the history of the Republic of Zimbabwe was held in Harare, which led to the forced resignation of the long-serving 93-year-old President of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, an event which was part of the first successful coup in Zimbabwe.[32][33]
Contemporary Harare
Since 2000, Harare has experienced periods of spectacular decline, particularly in the 2000s, but since the Great Recession it has stabilised and experienced significant population growth and uneven economic growth.[citation needed][clarification needed] There has nonetheless been substantial international investment and speculation in the city's financial and property markets. Development on the urban fringes of the city has occurred in areas such as Borrowdale, Glen Lorne, The Grange, Mount Pleasant Heights, as well as in the new suburbs of Hogerty Hill, Shawasha Hills, Bloomingdale and Westlea. Urban sprawl has also expanded into the nearby areas of Mount Hampden, Ruwa and Norton.[34] In addition, inner city areas such as Avondale, Eastlea, Belgravia, Newlands and Milton Park have seen increased gentrification driven by speculation from expat Zimbabweans. This speculation has also attracted other foreign buyers, resulting in high property prices and widespread rent increases.[35] Harare sustained the highest population increase and urban development of any major Zimbabwean city since 2000, with other cities such as Bulawayo, Gweru, and Mutare largely stagnating during the same period.[36]
Beginning in 2006, the city's growth extended into its northern and western fringes, beyond the city's urban growth boundary. Predictions that by 2025 the metropolitan area population will reach 4 to 5 million have sparked concerns over unchecked sprawl and unregulated development.[37][needs update] The concentration of real estate development in Harare has also come at the expense of other Zimbabwean cities such as Gweru and particularly Bulawayo, which is increasingly characterized by stagnation and high unemployment due to the collapse of many of its heavy industries. Today, Harare's property market remains highly priced, more so than regional cities such as Johannesburg and Cape Town.[citation needed] The top end of the market is completely dominated by wealthy or dual-citizen Zimbabweans (see Zimbabwean diaspora and Zimbabweans in the United Kingdom), Chinese and South African buyers.[34][37] Despite gentrification and speculation, the country's and city's unemployment rates remain high.[citation needed]
The city sits on one of the higher parts of the Highveld plateau of Zimbabwe at an elevation of 1,483 metres (4,865 feet). The original landscape could be described as a "parkland"[41] or wild place. The soils of Harare are varied: the northern and central areas largely have reddish brown, granular clay; some of the southern parts have gray-brown sand over pale, loamy sand or sandy loam.[42]
The City of Harare is divided into suburbs, outside of which are independent municipalities such as Epworth, Mount Hampden, Norton, Ruwa, and Chitungwiza, which are still located within the greater metropolitan province.[43]
The central business district of Harare is characterized by wide streets and a mix of historic, post-war, and modern buildings. Downtown sights include the Kopje Africa Unity Square, the Harare Gardens, the National Gallery, the August House parliamentary buildings, and the National Archives. Causeway, a road and sub-neighbourhood of central Harare, is a busy workaday area that acts as the city's "embassy row" (along with Belgravia to the north-east) in which numerous embassies, diplomatic missions, research institutes, and other international organizations are concentrated.[44] Additionally, many government ministries and museums, such as the Zimbabwe Museum of Human Sciences, are located here.[45]
Rotten Row is a sub-district of downtown Harare that begins at the intersection of Prince Edward Street and Samora Machel Avenue and runs to the flyover where it borders Mbare on Cripps Road.[46] Rotten Row was named after a road in London of the same name. The name "Rotten Row" is an altered form of the French phrase "Route du Roi," the King's Road.[47] It is known as Harare's legal district, home to the Harare Magistrate's Court, the city's central library, and the ZANU-PF building, along with numerous law offices.[46] The neighbourhood also lends its name to the eponymous book by Petina Gappah published in 2016.[48]
The northern and north-eastern suburbs of Harare are generally home to its more affluent residents, including former president Robert Mugabe, who lived in Borrowdale Brooke.[49] These northern suburbs are often referred to as "dales" because of the common suffix "-dale" found in some suburbs such as Avondale, Greendale, and Borrowdale.[citation needed] The dwellings are mostly low-density homes of 3 bedrooms or more, and these are usually occupied by families.[citation needed] Borrowdale in particular is home to some of the most extensive real estate developments in the city.[50] The north-western suburb of Emerald Hill is named so either due to the green colour of the tree-covered hill or its Irish connections — many of the roads in the suburb have Irish names, such as Dublin, Belfast, Wicklow, and Cork.[50]
To the east of Harare's city center, notable suburbs include Arcadia, Newlands, Arlington, and others. Newlands was named by Colin Duff, Zimbabwe's agricultural secretary in the 1920s. Arlington is a newer suburb adjacent to Harare International Airport and was previously owned by William Harvey Brown, a former mayor of Salisbury. Brown was originally from Iowa and joined the occupying British South Africa Company forces in the 1890s to collect specimens for the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.[50]
The southern portions of Harare have historically been more industrial areas, often home to most of its African population as well as some lower-class European-descended populations.[51] Willowvale, is perhaps best known for the 1988 Willowgate scandal, which implicated several members of the ZANU-PF party in a scheme where automobiles were illegally resold by various government officials.[citation needed] Harare's south-west also contains many high-density townships, which were set up by the government from the 1930s onwards. For example, Highfield, established in 1930, is the second-oldest high-density suburb in Harare. Highfield was created as a place for black workers to settle, providing labor for the industrial areas of Southerton and Workington.[50]
The average annual temperature is 17.95 °C (64.3 °F), rather low for the tropics. This is due to its high altitude position and the prevalence of cool south-easterly airflow.[52]
There are three main seasons: a warm, wet summer from November to March/April; a cool, dry winter from May to August (corresponding to winter in the Southern Hemisphere); and a warm to hot, dry season in September/October. Daily temperature ranges are about 7–22 °C (45–72 °F) in July (the coldest month), about 15–29 °C (59–84 °F) in October (the hottest month) and about 16–26 °C (61–79 °F) in January (midsummer). The hottest year on record was 1914 with 19.73 °C (67.5 °F) and the coldest year was 1965 with 17.13 °C (62.8 °F).
The average annual rainfall is about 825 mm (32.5 in) in the southwest, rising to 855 mm (33.7 in) on the higher land of the northeast (from around Borrowdale to Glen Lorne). Very little rain typically falls during the period of May to September, although sporadic showers occur most years. Rainfall varies a great deal from year to year and follows cycles of wet and dry periods from 7 to 10 years long. Records begin in October 1890 but all three Harare stations stopped reporting in early 2004.[53]
The climate supports the natural vegetation of open woodland. The most common tree of the local region is the msasa or Brachystegia spiciformis whose wine-red leaves are most visible in the city in late August. Two introduced species of trees, the jacaranda and the flamboyant from South America and Madagascar respectively, were introduced during the colonial era and contribute to the city's colour palette with their lilac and red blossoms. The two species flower in October/November and are planted on alternating streets in the capital. Bougainvillea is prevalent in Harare as well. Some trees from Northern Hemisphere middle latitudes are also cultivated, including American sweetgum, English oak, Japanese oak and Spanish oak.[54]
Climate data for Harare (1961–1990, extremes 1897–present)
Harare is Zimbabwe's leading financial, commercial, and communications centre, as well as an international trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits.[citation needed] Manufacturing of products including textiles, steel, and chemicals is also economically significant, as is the trade of precious minerals such as gold, diamonds and platinum.[citation needed] Early investor optimism following the inauguration of the Mnangagwa government in 2017 has since largely subsided due to the slow pace of reforms aimed at making Harare and Zimbabwe more business-friendly.[59] The economy suffered high inflation and frequent power outages in 2019, which further hampered investment, and the poor implementation of adequate monetary reforms alongside deficit reduction attempts had a similar effect.[citation needed] Although the government has repeatedly stressed its commitments to improving transparency, increasing the ease of doing business, and fighting corruption, progress remains limited under the Mnangagwa administration.[59]
Harare experienced a real estate boom in the 2000s and early 2010s, particularly in the wealthy northern suburbs, with prices rising dramatically over the last decade despite challenges in other sectors of the economy.[60] This boom was largely fueled by members of the Zimbabwean diaspora and by speculation, with investors hedging against the local currency.[60][34] However, the once-growing market began to cool off due to a 2019 hike in interest rates and the economic fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic, leaving a number of projects unfinished.[61]
Another challenge to Harare's economy is the persistent emigration of highly educated and skilled residents to the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand, largely due to the economic downturn and political unrest.[62] The city's brain drain, almost unprecedented compared to other emerging markets,[citation needed] has led to declining numbers of local entrepreneurs, an overstretched and declining middle class, and a dearth of employment opportunities outside the informal and public sector.[62] In addition, the city's working-class residents are increasingly moving to nearby South Africa and Botswana, though they are readily replaced by less well-off rural migrants.[63] However, despite over a decade of neglect, the city's infrastructure and human capital still compares favourably with cities in other parts of Africa and Latin America.[citation needed] It remains to be seen whether the current government can entice its diverse and well-educated Zimbabwean diaspora, numbering some 4 to 7 million people, to invest in the economy, let alone consider returning.[64][62][65]
Shopping and retail
Locally produced art, handicrafts and souvenirs can be purchased at locations including Doon Estate, Uwminsdale, Avondale Market and Mbare Musika. Msasa Park and Umwinsdale in particular host a number of galleries that produce high-quality Shona soapstone sculptures and textiles, such as Patrick Mavros Studios, which has another gallery in Knightsbridge, London.[66] International brands are generally less common in Harare than in European cities. However, conventional and luxury shopping can be found on Fife Avenue, Sam Nujoma (Union) Avenue, Arundel Village, Avondale, Borrowdale, Eastgate and Westgate.[67] Virtually all luxury shopping is concentrated in the wealthier northern suburbs, particularly Borrowdale.
Harare is a relatively young city, mostly growing during the country's post-Federation and post-independence booms. It was also segregated along racial and class lines until 1976. As a result, Harare today is a mostly low-density urban area geared towards private motorists, lacking a convenient public transportation system.[68] Very little investment has been made to develop an effective and integrated public transportation system, leaving a significant number of the city's residents dependent on the city's informal minibus taxis.[68] The rise of local ridesharing apps such as GTaxi and Hwindi has partly eased pressure on the city's transportation system, but such rides are still too expensive for most working people to use.[69] In addition, bus services are also available but they are mostly geared towards intercity travel and recreation than journeys within Harare itself.
The city's public transport system includes public and private sector operations. The former consists of ZUPCO buses. Privately owned public transport included licensed station wagons (nicknamed 'emergency taxis') until 1993, when the government began to replace them with licensed buses and minibuses, referred to officially as 'commuter omnibuses'.[70] Harare has two kinds of taxis, metered taxis and the much more ubiquitous share taxis or 'kombis'. Unlike many other cities, metered taxis generally do not drive around the city looking for passengers and instead must be called and ordered to a destination. The minibus "taxis" are the de facto day-to-day form of transport relied upon by the majority of Harare's population.[71]
Harare Railway Station
As of May 2023, Harare is not served by any passenger rail service. The National Railways of Zimbabwe previously operated daily overnight passenger train services to Mutare and Bulawayo using the Beira–Bulawayo railway.[72] Long-distance rail service was suspended in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and has not been restarted. Between 2001 and 2006, three commuter rail routes operated in Harare, serving Tynwald, Mufakose and Ruwa. These commuter rail routes, nicknamed 'Freedom Trains', were reintroduced in 2021, but were suspended again in November 2022 due to payment disputes with ZUPCO.[73]
Long-distance bus services link Harare to most parts of Zimbabwe.[citation needed]
The University of Zimbabwe is located in Harare. Founded in 1952, the university is the country's oldest and largest, offering a wide range of undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The student population stands at 20,399, with 17,718 undergraduate students and 2,681 postgraduate students.[74]
Sports
Kirsty Coventry, former Olympian and current Minister of Sport
Harare has long been regarded as Zimbabwe's sporting capital due to its role in developing Zimbabwean sport, the range and quality of its sporting events and venues, and its high rates of spectatorship and participation.[75] The city is also home to more professional sports teams competing at the national and international levels than any other Zimbabwean city. Football is the most popular sport in Harare, particularly among working-class residents, with the city producing many footballers who have gone on to play in the English Premier League and elsewhere.[citation needed]Cricket and rugby are also popular sports with those from middle-class backgrounds.[citation needed]
Virtually all first-class and international cricket matches are hosted at Harare Sports Club, with most domestic tours occurring in spring and summer. This city is also home to the Mashonaland Eagles in the domestic Logan Cup tournament. The Eagles are coached by renowned former Zimbabwe national cricket team batsman Grant Flower.[78] The team are one of the country's strongest sides and last won the Logan Cup in the 2022-23 Logan Cup season.[79]
Rugby
Harare is also the heartland of rugby union in Zimbabwe, rivalling Windhoek in Namibia as the strongest rugby region in Africa beyond South Africa.[citation needed] The governing Rhodesia Rugby Football Union was founded in Harare in 1895 and became the Zimbabwe Rugby Union in 1980. The union and national sides are based in the northern suburb of Alexandra Park.[80] Harare is home to four of the country's national Super Six Rugby League (SSRL) clubs: Harare Sports Club, Old Georgians, Old Hararians and Old Miltonians.[81] Additionally, the Zimbabwe Rugby Academy, the national development side which plays in the second division of the Currie Cup, is largely made up of players from the city. International rugby test matches tend to be hosted at Harare Sports Club, the Police Grounds, and at Hartsfield in Bulawayo, with a particularly strong rivalry with the Namibia national rugby union team. Traditionally the city hosted tours by the British and Irish Lions, Argentina, and the All-Blacks on their respective tours of South Africa. However, this is no longer the case, due to the end of traditional rugby tours and the Zimbabwe national rugby union team's decline in the international rugby rankings.[82]Wales was the last major country to tour Harare, visiting in 1993.[83]
High school teams are generally of a high standard, with Prince Edward School, St. George's College, and St. John's College all ranking among the country's leading teams and frequently sending their first XV sides to compete against well-known South African high schools during Craven Week.[82] After high school, the city's best players unfortunately tend to move on to South Africa or the United Kingdom due to a lack of professionalism and greater educational and earning opportunities abroad, thus depleting the strength of the rugby union in Zimbabwe.[84] Notable internationals hailing from Harare include Tendai Mtawarira, Don Armand, and Brian Mujati, among numerous others.[85]
Media
Harare is host to some of Zimbabwe's leading media outlets. Despite accusations of government censorship and intimidation, the city maintains a robust press, much of which is defiantly critical of the current government.[86][additional citation(s) needed] In print media, the most internationally-famous paper is the Herald, the city's oldest newspaper, founded in 1893 and former paper of record prior to its purchase by the government. The paper is best noted for its heavy censorship during the Rhodesian Front government from 1962 to 1979, with many of its articles appearing as redacted — with black boxes marking the words removed by government censors — before its forced purchase.[87] Today it is largely seen as little more than a government mouthpiece by residents and overwhelmingly supports the government line.[88][additional citation(s) needed]
In contrast, private newspapers continue to adopt a more independent line and enjoy a diverse and vibrant readership.[citation needed] These include the Financial Gazette, the financial paper of record which is nicknamed 'the Pink Press' for its tradition of printing on a pink broadsheet. Other newspapers include: the Zimbabwe Independent, a centre-left newspaper and de factopaper of record noted for its investigative journalism; the Standard, a centre-left Sunday paper; NewsDay, a left-wing tabloid; H-Metro, a mass-market tabloid; the Daily News, a left wing opposition paper; and Kwayedza, the leading Shona language newspaper in Zimbabwe.[88][additional citation(s) needed]
Online media outlets include ZimOnline, ZimDaily, the Zimbabwe Guardian and NewZimbabwe.com amongst others.[89][90][87]
Television and radio
The state-owned ZBC TV maintains a monopoly on free-to-air TV channels in the city, with private broadcasters (such as the now-defunct Joy TV) coming and going based on the whims of the government.[91] As such, many households that can afford the cost subscribe to the satellite television distributor DStv for entertainment, news, and sport from Africa and abroad.
In November 2021, it was announced that six new free-to-air private television stations would go live in Zimbabwe and join ZBC TV after the Broadcasting Authority of Zimbabwe issued licences, ending the 64-year monopoly enjoyed by the state-owned broadcaster. Zimpapers Television Network, a subsidiary of diversified media group Zimbabwe Newspapers Ltd, was one of the channels awarded a free-to-air television licence. The other five were NRTV, 3K TV, Kumba TV, Ke Yona TV, and Channel Dzimbahwe.[92][93]
Harare is also well served by radio, with a number of the country's leading radio stations maintaining a presence in the city. There are currently four state-controlled Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation channels (SFM, Radio Zimbabwe, Power FM and National FM), as well as private national commercial free-to-air stations such as Star FM, Capital 100.4 FM, and ZiFM. In addition, Channel Zim (an alternative satellite channel) and VOA Zimbabwe both broadcast via inexpensive free-to-air decoders.[94] Eight newly licensed local commercial stations have been commissioned, but were not yet on air as of 2020.[94]
Commercial stations tend to show similar trends in programming, with high percentages of music, talk radio or phone-in programs, and sports, with only infrequent news bulletins. Despite the country's 16 official languages, virtually all broadcasts occur in English, Shona, and Ndebele.[94]
Harare has a strong cultural and artistic scene that often responds to ongoing economic and political crises, offering opportunities for satire, experimentation, and reinvention. While authors and musicians such as Doris Lessing, Petina Gappah and Thomas Mapfumo have long criticized the corruption and shortcomings of the Smith and Mugabe governments, the emergence of protest and critical theatre since 2000 has invigorated the local arts scene.[95] Actors, directors and artists have joined musicians and writers in criticizing political maleficence and audiences have rallied behind them, making the local theatre and art scene one of the most vibrant in the southern hemisphere.[96]
The city is also the site of the Harare International Festival of the Arts (HIFA), which has featured such acclaimed artists as Cape Verdean singer Sara Tavares.[97] HIFA was cancelled in 2019, and it is unclear whether it has been held in subsequent years.[98]
Harare is home to several notable museums and monuments. The National Gallery of Zimbabwe exhibits Shona art and stone sculpture. The Zimbabwe Museum of Human Sciences near Rotten Row documents the archaeology of Southern Africa through the Stone Age and into the Iron Age. Artifacts, newspapers, and other items from milestones in Zimbabwe's history can be found at the National Archives. The Heroes' Acre is a burial ground and national monument, whose purpose is to commemorate both pro-independence fighters killed during the Rhodesian Bush War and contemporary Zimbabweans who have served their country and are buried at the site.[citation needed]
Private cultural institutions include Chapungu Sculpture Park in the Msasa Park neighborhood, which displays the work of Zimbabwean stone sculptors. It was founded in 1970 by Roy Guthrie, who was instrumental in promoting the work of its sculptors worldwide.[citation needed] One notable example of architecture in Harare is the Eastgate Centre, a shopping mall with an innovative design, located equidistant from Unity Square and Borrowdale.
Green spaces
Harare has been nicknamed Zimbabwe's "Sunshine City" for its abundant parks and outdoor amenities.[43] There is an abundance of parks and gardens across town, many close to the CBD, with a variety of common and rare plant species amid landscaped vistas, pedestrian pathways, and tree-lined avenues.[43][failed verification] Harare's parks are often considered the best public parks in all of Zimbabwe's major cities.[citation needed] There are also many parks in the surrounding suburbs, particularly in the affluent suburbs of Borrowdale, Mount Pleasant, and Glen Lorne, located northeast of the central business district.[citation needed]
Within the city, prominent green spaces include:[citation needed]
The Royal Harare Golf Course, an 18-hole championship course set in msasa woodland that hosts the Zimbabwe Open each year as part of the Sunshine Tour.
Cleveland Dam Recreational Park, which overlooks its namesake dam and is located in msasa woodland along the highway to Mutare.
Mukuvisi Woodlands, which comprises 263 hectares of indigenous msasa and miombo woodland and is home to zebras, giraffes, eland, wildebeest, ostriches, impalas, and birdlife and indigenous flora.[99]
^Harare Provincial Profile(PDF) (Report). Parliament Research Department. 2011. Archived from the original(PDF) on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
^Abu Hassan Abu Bakar, Arman Abd Razak, Shardy Abdullah and Aidah Awang. "PROJECT MANAGEMENT SUCCESS FACTORS FOR SUSTAINABLE HOUSING: A FRAMEWORK"(PDF). School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. Retrieved 3 March 2022 – via eprints.usm.my.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Room, Adrian (2003). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for Over 5000 Natural Features, Countries, Capitals, Territories, Cities and Historic Sights. McFarland. ISBN9780786418145.
^Current Africanist Research: International Bulletin. La Recherche Africaniste en Cours; Bulletin International - International African Institute. Research Information Liaison Unit - pg. 367
^D.A.C. Maunder and T.C. Mbara, "The initial effects of introducing commuter omnibus services in Harare, Zimbabwe", TRL: The Future of Transport 123 (January 1995). ISBN1-84608-122-X; and https://trl.co.uk/reports/TRL123
2000 studio album by CommonLike Water for ChocolateStudio album by CommonReleasedMarch 28, 2000Recorded1999–2000 Electric Lady Studios (New York, New York) Studio A (Dearborn Heights, Michigan)Genre Hip hop alternative hip hop conscious hip hop progressive rap[1] Length77:51LabelMCAProducerQuestlove (also exec.)Common (co-exec.)Derek Dudley (co-exec.)J DillaJames PoyserDJ PremierD'AngeloKarriem RigginsCommon chronology One Day It'll All Make Sense(1997) Like Water for Chocol...
Pertempuran TrafalgarBagian dari Kampanye Trafalgar dan Perang Koalisi KetigaThe Battle of Trafalgar, oleh J. M. W. Turner (lukisan cat minyak, 1806-1808)Tanggal21 Oktober 1805LokasiTanjung Trafalgar, SpanyolHasil Kemenangan Armada Laut InggrisPihak terlibat Britania Raya Kekaisaran Perancis SpanyolTokoh dan pemimpin Horatio Nelson † Pierre Charles Silvestre de VilleneuveKekuatan 27 kapal dalam formasi lurus dan 6 dalam formasi lainnya. Prancis: 18 kapal dalam formasi lurus dan 8 dalam form...
Jean Mossoux Plaats uw zelfgemaakte foto hier Persoonlijke informatie Geboortedatum 28 september 1928 Nationaliteit Belgische Sport Handbal Senioren Seizoen Club 0000 - ROC Flémalle Interlands 0000 - België Portaal Handbal Jean Mossoux (28 september 1928 - 20 oktober 1982) was een Belgisch handballer. Levensloop Mossoux startte met handbal omstreeks zijn 21e levensjaar (1949) bij ROC Flémalle. Er was op dat moment nog geen officiële competitie in België. Vanaf de oprichting ...
Pour les articles homonymes, voir Ancillon. Charles AncillonBiographieNaissance 28 juillet 1659MetzDécès 5 juillet 1715 (à 55 ans)BerlinPseudonymes C. d'Ollincan, M, M*** DFormation Université de MarbourgUniversité de GenèveActivités Diplomate, historien, avocatPère David AncillonAutres informationsMembre de Académie royale des sciences de Prussemodifier - modifier le code - modifier Wikidata Charles Ancillon (29 juillet 1659 à Metz- 5 juillet 1715 à Berlin), est un historien ...
جامعة أوميو Umeå universitet شعار جامعة أوميو جانب من الحرم الجامعي معلومات التأسيس 17 سبتمبر 1965 (1965-09-17) (58 سنة) النوع عامة، بحثية لغات التدريس الإنكليزية الموقع الجغرافي إحداثيات 63°49′14″N 20°18′13″E / 63.820555555556°N 20.303611111111°E / 63.820555555556; 20.303611111111 المدينة أوميو الرمز البر
Prime minister of Iraq from 1953 to 1954Muhammad Fadhel al-Jamaliمحمد فاضل الجماليPrime Minister of IraqIn office17 September 1953 – 29 April 1954MonarchFaisal IIPreceded byJamil al-MidfaiSucceeded byArshad al-UmariForeign Minister of IraqIn office1 July 1946 – 27 January 1948MonarchFaisal IIPrime MinisterArshad al-UmariNuri al-SaidSayyid Salih JabrPreceded byAli Mumtaz al-DaftarySucceeded byHamdi al-Bachachi Personal detailsBornApril 20, 1903Kadhimiya, Ba...
Town in New Hampshire, United StatesLandaff, New HampshireTownLocation in Grafton County, New HampshireCoordinates: 44°10′30″N 71°53′13″W / 44.17500°N 71.88694°W / 44.17500; -71.88694CountryUnited StatesStateNew HampshireCountyGraftonIncorporated1774VillagesLandaff CenterIrelandJockey HillGovernment • Select BoardJennifer Locke, ChairHarry McGovernMary BeaudinArea[1] • Total28.48 sq mi (73.75 km2)...
Telephone numbers in AbkhaziaAbkhazia show in (red)LocationCountryAbkhaziaFormat+995 44X 2XXXXX / +7 N40 XXX-XX-XXAccess codesCountry code+7 840 / +7 940+995 44XInternational access008, 009, 010Long-distance8 Telephone numbers in Abkhazia can be accessed through codes operated by Georgia and Russia.[1] The international numbering format is +995 44X 2XXXXX and +7 N40 XXX-XX-XX. Georgian code Russian code Area +995 442 +7 84022 Sukhumi +995 443 +7 84023 Gagra +995 444 +7 84024 Gudauta +...
هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (يوليو 2019) دانيال بروكس معلومات شخصية الميلاد 5 يناير 1987 (36 سنة) مواطنة المملكة المتحدة الحياة العملية المهنة لاعب غولف اللغات الإنجليزية الرياضة غولف&...
Три подвесных лодочных мотора Yamaha-300 на корме катера общей мощностью 900 л. с.Крайние моторы имеют разное направление вращения гребного винта (для выравнивания правой и левой циркуляции). Подвесной ло́дочный мото́р — лодочный мотор, прикрепляемый к жёсткому транцу лодк...
British writer and journalist This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (April 2013) Jocasta Innes Jocasta Claire Traill Innes[1] (21 May 1934 – 20 April 2013) was a British writer, journalist and businesswoman. Life Innes was born in Nanjing, China, the eldest of three daughters born to Paul Joseph Anthony Innes, a Shell Oil ex...
قرية جول النمير - قرية - تقسيم إداري البلد اليمن المحافظة محافظة حضرموت المديرية مديرية المكلا العزلة عزلة المكلا السكان التعداد السكاني 2004 السكان 64 • الذكور 30 • الإناث 34 • عدد الأسر 6 • عدد المساكن 4 معلومات أخرى التوقيت توقيت اليمن (+3 غرينيت...
South Korean production company Playlist StudioTypePrivate[1]IndustryEntertainmentBroadcasting (drama production)MusicGenreKorean dramaTeen dramaComing-of-ageEntertainmentFoundedMay 23, 2017; 6 years ago (2017-05-23)FounderPark Tae-wonHeadquarters415, Teheran-ro Gangnam-gu, Seoul, South KoreaKey peoplePark Tae-won, CEO Baek Kwang-hyeon, COO Yoon Hyun-gi, PD[2]ProductsWeb seriesMerchandiseNumber of employees100 (2020)[3]ParentNaver CorporationWebsitepl...
District in Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, IndiaDiu districtDistrictDiu districtDiu district locationCoordinates: 20°43′N 70°59′E / 20.71°N 70.98°E / 20.71; 70.98Country IndiaUnion Territory Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and DiuHeadquartersDiu TownArea • Total40 km2 (20 sq mi)Elevation30 m (100 ft)Population (2011) • Total52,074 • Density1,300/km2 (3,400/sq mi)DemonymDiuca...
XoniaXonia, posed photo, 2009Background informationBirth nameLoredana SachelaruAlso known asXoniaBorn (1989-06-25) 25 June 1989 (age 34)Melbourne, AustraliaGenresPop, dance, electronicOccupation(s)Singer, songwriter, actress, dancerYears active2008–presentLabelsArtist Media AgencyWebsitewww.xoniamusic.comMusical artist Xonia (born Loredana Sachelaru; 25 June 1989) is an Australian-born Romanian singer, songwriter, actress and dancer. Biography 1989–2007: Early life and education Xoni...
American post-hardcore band QuicksandQuicksand in 2014Background informationOriginNew York City, New York, U.S.GenresPost-hardcore[1]alternative metalYears active 1990–1995 1997–1999 2012–present Labels Revelation Polydor Island Epitaph Spinoffs Handsome Rival Schools Walking Concert Seaweed Members Walter Schreifels Alan Cage Stephen Brodsky Sergio Vega Past membersTom CaponeWebsitequicksandnyc.com Quicksand is an American post-hardcore band from New York City, founded in 1990....
Revolution group formed in 1966 The (Central) Cultural Revolution Group (CRG or CCRG; Chinese: 中央文革小组; pinyin: Zhōngyāng Wéngé Xiǎozǔ) was formed in May 1966 as a replacement organisation to the Central Committee Secretariat and the Five Man Group, and was initially directly responsible to the Standing Committee of the Politburo. It consisted mainly of radical supporters of Mao, including Chen Boda, the Chairman's wife Jiang Qing, Kang Sheng, Yao Wenyuan, Zhang Chunq...
Indian actress This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: Sheelu Abraham – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) S...
Motor vehicle Vale SpecialOverviewManufacturerVale Engineering CompanyProduction1932-1935approx 100 madeDesignerP. I. E. Pellew (chief)S. F. Mortimer (assistant)Body and chassisBody styletwo-seat tourerfour-seat tourer (Tourette)PowertrainEngineTriumph 832 ccI4Coventry Climax 1098 cc I4Coventry Climax 1476 cc I6Transmission4-speed manualDimensionsWheelbase84 or 102 inches (2134 or 2590 mm[1]Length132 inches (3352 mm)[2]Width55 inches (1397 mm)[1]ChronologyPredeces...
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