South Sudan (/suːˈdɑːn,-ˈdæn/), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa.[16] It is bordered on the north by Sudan; on the east by Ethiopia; on the south by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya; and on the west by Central African Republic. South Sudan's diverse landscape includes vast plains and plateaus, dry and tropical savannahs, inland floodplains, and forested mountains. The Nile River system is the defining physical feature of the country, running south to north across its center, which is dominated by a large swamp known as the Sudd. South Sudan has a population of 12.7 million. Juba is the capital and largest city.[8]
South Sudan descended into a civil war from 2013 to 2020, enduring rampant human rights abuses, including forced displacement, ethnic massacres, and killings of journalists by various parties. It has since been governed by a coalition formed by leaders of the former warring factions, Salva Kiir Mayardit and Riek Machar.[20] The country continues to recover from the war while experiencing ongoing and systemic ethnic violence.[21]
The South Sudanese population is composed mostly of Nilotic peoples spanning a variety of ethnic, tribal, and linguistic groups. It is demographically among the youngest nations in the world, with roughly half its people under 18 years old.[22] The majority of inhabitants adhere to Christianity or various traditional indigenous faiths, with a sizeable Muslim minority.
The name Sudan is a name given to a geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic bilād as-sūdān (بلاد السودان), or the "Land of the Blacks".[29] The term was used by Arab traders and travelers in the region to refer to the various indigenous black African cultures and societies that they encountered.[30]
The Nilotic people of South Sudan—the Dinka, Anyuak, Bari, Acholi, Nuer, Shilluk, Kaligi (Arabic Feroghe), and others—first entered South Sudan sometime before the tenth century, coinciding with the fall of medieval Nubia. From the 15th to the 19th century, tribal migrations, largely from the area of Bahr el Ghazal, brought the Anyuak, Dinka, Nuer, and Shilluk to their modern locations in Bahr El Ghazal and the Upper Nile Region, while the Acholi and Bari settled in Equatoria. The Zande, Mundu, Avukaya and Baka, who entered South Sudan in the 16th century, established the region's largest state of Equatoria Region.[citation needed]
The Dinka is the largest, the Nuer the second-largest, the Zande the third-largest, and the Bari the fourth-largest of South Sudan's ethnic groups. They are found in the Maridi, Yambio, and Tombura districts in the tropical rainforest belt of Western Equatoria, the Adio of Azande client in Yei, Central Equatoria, and Western Bahr el Ghazal. In the 18th century, the Avungara sib rose to power over the rest of Azande society, a domination that continued into the 20th century.[31] British policies favouring Christian missionaries, such as the Closed District Ordinance of 1922 (see History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), and geographical barriers such as the swamplands along the White Nile curtailed the spread of Islam to the south, thus allowing the southern tribes to retain much of their social and cultural heritage, as well as their political and religious institutions.
British colonial policy in Sudan had a long history of emphasizing the development of the Arab north and largely ignoring the Black African south, which lacked schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, and other basic infrastructure. After Sudan's first independent elections in 1958, the continued neglect of the southern region by the Khartoum government led to uprisings, revolts, and the longest civil war on the continent.[32][33] People affected by the violence included the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Anyuak, Murle, Bari, Mundari, Baka, Balanda Bviri, Boya, Didinga, Jiye, Kakwa, Kaligi, Kuku, Lotuka, Nilotic, Toposa, and Zande.[34]
The Azande have had good relations with their neighbours, namely the Moru, Mundu, Pöjulu, Avukaya, Baka, and the small groups in Bahr el Ghazal, due to the expansionist policy of their king Gbudwe, in the 18th century. In the 19th century, the Azande fought the French, the Belgians and the Mahdists to maintain their independence. Ottoman Egypt, under the rule of KhediveIsmail Pasha, first attempted to control the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of Equatoria in the southern portion. Egypt's first appointed governor was Samuel Baker, commissioned in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874, and by Emin Pasha in 1878.[35]
The Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilized the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile, and Wadelai. European colonial manoeuvrings in the region came to a head in 1898, when the Fashoda Incident occurred at present-day Kodok; Britain and France almost went to war over the region.[35] Britain then treated South Sudan as a distinct entity with a different stage of development than the North. This policy was legalized in 1930 by the announcement of the Southern Policy. In 1946, without consulting Southern opinion, the British administration reversed its Southern Policy and began instead to implement a policy of uniting the North and the South.[36]
The region has been negatively affected by two civil wars since Sudanese independence: from 1955 to 1972, the Sudanese government fought the Anyanya rebel army (Anya-Nya is a term in the Madi language which means "snake venom")[37] during the First Sudanese Civil War, followed by the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M) in the Second Sudanese Civil War for over twenty years, from 1983 to 2005. As a result, the country suffered serious neglect, a lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2.5 million people have been killed, and millions more have become refugees both within and outside the country.
South Sudan has an estimated population of 11 million people in 2023[38] but, given the lack of a census in several decades, this estimate may be severely distorted. The economy is predominantly rural and relies chiefly on subsistence farming.[39][40] Around 2005, the economy began a transition from this rural dominance, and urban areas within South Sudan have seen extensive development.
Independence (2011)
A South Sudanese girl at independence festivities
Between 9 and 15 January 2011, as a consequence of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, the South Sudanese independence referendum was held to determine whether South Sudan should become an independent country, separate from Sudan. Following that, 98.83% of those who took part in the referendum voted for separation or independence.[41] And on 23 January 2011, members of a steering committee on post-independence governing told reporters that upon independence the land would be named the Republic of South Sudan "out of familiarity and convenience". Other names that had been considered were Azania, Nile Republic, Kush Republic and even Juwama, a portmanteau for Juba, Wau and Malakal, three major cities.[42] South Sudan formally became independent from Sudan on 9 July, although certain disputes still remained, including the division of oil revenues, as 75% of all the former Sudan's oil reserves are in South Sudan.[43] The region of Abyei still remains disputed and a separate referendum will be held in Abyei on whether they want to join Sudan or South Sudan.[44] The South Kordofan conflict broke out in June 2011 between the Army of Sudan and the SPLA over the Nuba Mountains.
On 9 July 2011, South Sudan became the 54th independent country in Africa[45] (9 July is now celebrated as Independence Day, a national holiday[46]) and since 14 July 2011, South Sudan is the 193rd member of the United Nations.[47] On 27 July 2011, South Sudan became the 54th country to join the African Union.[48][49] In September 2011, Google Maps recognized South Sudan as an independent country, after a massive crowdsourcing mapping initiative was launched.[50]
In 2011 it was reported that South Sudan was at war with at least seven armed groups in 9 of its 10 states, with tens of thousands displaced.[51] The fighters accuse the government of plotting to stay in power indefinitely, not fairly representing and supporting all tribal groups while neglecting development in rural areas.[51][52] The Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) also operates in a wide area that includes South Sudan.
Inter-ethnic warfare in some cases predates the war of independence and is widespread. In December 2011, tribal clashes intensified between the Nuer White Army of the LouNuer and the Murle.[53] The White Army warned it would wipe out the Murle and would also fight South Sudanese and UN forces sent to the area around Pibor.[54]
In March 2012, South Sudanese forces seized the Heglig oil fields in lands claimed by both Sudan and South Sudan in the province of South Kordofan after conflict with Sudanese forces in the South Sudanese state of Unity.[55] South Sudan withdrew on 20 March, and the Sudanese Army entered Heglig two days later.
On the 5th of September 2013, an article written by analyst Duop Chak Wuol was published by the US-based South Sudan News Agency (SSNA).[56] The writer raised critical questions surrounding what he described as the rise of autocracy within the top leadership of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and warned of monumental repercussions unless the ruling elites restored the founding principles of the party. Duop also berated the ruling party, arguing that the party has replaced its founding principles with "forgotten promises and deceptions". In December 2013, a political power struggle broke out between President Kiir and his former deputy Riek Machar, as the president accused Machar and ten others of attempting a coup d'état.[57] Fighting broke out, igniting the South Sudanese Civil War. Ugandan troops were deployed to fight alongside South Sudanese government forces against the rebels.[58] The United Nations has peacekeepers in the country as part of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS). Numerous ceasefires were mediated by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) between the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and SPLM – in opposition and were subsequently broken. A peace agreement was signed in Ethiopia under threat of United Nations sanctions for both sides in August 2015.[59] Machar returned to Juba in 2016 and was appointed vice president.[60] Following a second breakout of violence in Juba, Machar was replaced as vice-president[61] and he fled the country[62] as the conflict erupted again. Rebel in-fighting has become a major part of the conflict.[63] Rivalry among Dinka factions led by the President and Malong Awan has also led to fighting. In August 2018, another power-sharing agreement came into effect.[64]
About 400,000 people are estimated to have been killed in the war,[65] including notable atrocities such as the 2014 Bentiu massacre.[66] Although both men have supporters from across South Sudan's ethnic divides, subsequent fighting has been communal, with rebels targeting members of Kiir's Dinka ethnic group and government soldiers attacking Nuers.[67] More than 4 million people have been displaced, with about 1.8 million of those internally displaced, and about 2.5 million having fled to neighbouring countries, especially Uganda and Sudan.[68]
Despite the official cessation of the civil war, violence between armed militia groups at the community level has continued in the country; according to Yasmin Sooka, Chair of the Commission of Human Rights in Sudan, the level of violence "far exceeds the violence between 2013 and 2019".[71]
Admission into the EAC and planned democratic elections (2016–)
The first democratic elections in South Sudan since the start of the civil war were scheduled for 2023 by the peace agreement that ended the war officially, but the transitional government and opposition agreed in 2022 to move them to late 2024 instead.[73] In September 2024, Kiir's office announced that the elections would be postponed an additional two years, to December 2026.[74]
On 20 February 2017, South Sudan and the United Nations declared a famine in parts of former Unity State, with the warning that it could spread rapidly without further action. Over 100,000 people were affected. The UN World Food Programme said that 40% of the population of South Sudan, 4.9 million people, need food urgently.[75][76] U.N. officials said that President Salva Kiir Mayardit was blocking food deliveries to some areas.[77] Furthermore, UNICEF warned that more than 1 million children in South Sudan were subjected to malnutrition.[78]
South Sudan lies between latitudes 3° and 13°N, and longitudes 24° and 36°E. It is covered in tropical forest, swamps, and grassland. The White Nile passes through the country, passing by Juba.[80] The Sudd is formed by the White Nile, known locally as the Bahr al Jabal, meaning "Mountain Sea".[81]
South Sudan's forest reserves also provided habitat for bongo, giant forest hogs, red river hogs, forest elephants, chimpanzees, and forest monkeys. Surveys begun in 2005 by WCS in partnership with the semi-autonomous government of Southern Sudan revealed that significant, though diminished wildlife populations still exist, and that, astonishingly, the huge migration of 1.3 million antelopes in the southeast is substantially intact.
Habitats in the country include grasslands, high-altitude plateaus and escarpments, wooded and grassy savannas, floodplains, and wetlands. Associated wildlife species include the endemic white-eared kob and Nile Lechwe, as well as elephants, giraffes, common eland, giant eland, oryx, lions, African wild dogs, cape buffalo, and topi (locally called tiang). Little is known about the white-eared kob and tiang, both types of antelope, whose magnificent migrations were legendary before the civil war. The Boma-Jonglei Landscape region encompasses Boma National Park, broad pasturelands and floodplains, Bandingilo National Park, and the Sudd, a vast area of swamp and seasonally flooded grasslands that includes the Zeraf Wildlife Reserve.
Little is known of the fungi of South Sudan. A list of fungi in Sudan was prepared by S. A. J. Tarr and published by the then Commonwealth Mycological Institute (Kew, Surrey, UK) in 1955. The list, of 383 species in 175 genera, included all fungi observed within the then boundaries of the country. Many of those records relate to what is now South Sudan. Most of the species recorded were associated with diseases of crops. The true number of species of fungi in South Sudan is probably much higher.
In 2006, President Kiir announced that his government would do everything possible to protect and propagate South Sudanese fauna and flora, and seek to reduce the effects of wildfires, waste dumping, and water pollution. The environment is threatened by the development of the economy and infrastructure. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.45/10, ranking it fourth globally out of 172 countries.[82]
South Sudan has a tropical climate, characterized by a rainy season of high humidity and large amounts of rainfall followed by a drier season. The temperature on average is always high with July being the coolest month with average temperatures falling between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F) and March being the warmest month with average temperatures ranging from 23 to 37 °C (73 to 98 °F).[84]
The most rainfall is seen between May and October, but the rainy season can commence in April and extend until November. On average May is the wettest month. The season is "influenced by the annual shift of the Inter-Tropical Zone"[85] and the shift to southerly and southwesterly winds leading to slightly lower temperatures, higher humidity, and more cloud coverage.[86]
Salva Kiir Mayardit, the first President of South Sudan. His trademark Stetson hat was a gift from United States President George W. Bush.South Sudan's presidential guard on Independence Day, 2011
On 8 May 2021, South Sudan President Salva Kiir announced a dissolution of Parliament as part of a 2018 peace deal to set up a new legislative body that will number 550 lawmakers.[91] According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices South Sudan is third lowest ranked electoral democracy in Africa.[92]
National capital project
A young South Sudanese girl smiling in traditional attire
The capital of South Sudan is located at Juba, which is also the state capital of Central Equatoria and the county seat of the eponymous Juba County, and is the country's largest city. However, due to Juba's poor infrastructure and massive urban growth, as well as its lack of centrality within South Sudan, the South Sudanese Government adopted a resolution in February 2011 to study the creation of a new planned city to serve as the seat of government.[93][94] It is planned that the capital city will be changed to the more centrally located Ramciel.[95] This proposal is functionally similar to construction projects in Abuja, Nigeria; Brasília, Brazil; and Canberra, Australia; among other modern-era planned national capitals. It is unclear how the government will fund the project.
In September 2011, a spokesman for the government said the country's political leaders had accepted a proposal to build a new capital at Ramciel,[96] a place in Lakes state near the borders with Central Equatoria and Jonglei. Ramciel is considered to be the geographical centre of the country,[97] and the late pro-independence leader John Garang allegedly had plans to relocate the capital there before his death in 2005. The proposal was supported by the Lakes state government and at least one Ramciel tribal chief.[98] The design, planning, and construction of the city will likely take as many as five years, government ministers said, and the move of national institutions to the new capital will be implemented in stages.[96]
States
2011–2015
The ten states of South Sudan prior to 2015, grouped in the three historical provinces of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
The Abyei Area, a small region of Sudan bordering on the South Sudanese states of Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Warrap, and Bentiu, was given special administrative status as a result of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed in 2005. Following the independence of South Sudan in 2011, Abyei is considered to be simultaneously part of both the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan, effectively a condominium. It was due to hold a referendum in 2011 on whether to join South Sudan or remain part of the Republic of Sudan, but in May 2011, the Sudanese military seized Abyei, and it is not clear if the referendum will be held.[citation needed]
2015–2020
The 32 states of South Sudan, after the addition of four more states in 2017
In October 2015, South Sudan's President Salva Kiir issued a decree establishing twenty-eight states in place of the ten constitutionally established states.[99] The decree established the new states largely along ethnic lines. A number of opposition parties and civil society challenged the constitutionality of this decree and Kiir later resolved to take it to parliament for approval as a constitutional amendment.[100] In November the South Sudanese parliament empowered President Kiir to create new states.[101]
Under the terms of a peace agreement signed on 22 February 2020, South Sudan is again divided into ten states, with two administrative areas and one area with special administrative status.[104][105]
The Kafia Kingi area is disputed between South Sudan and Sudan and the Ilemi Triangle is disputed between South Sudan and Kenya.
The states and administrative areas are once again grouped into the three former historical provinces of the Sudan; Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria and Greater Upper Nile:
Since independence, relations with Sudan have been changing. Sudan's PresidentOmar al-Bashir first announced, in January 2011, that dual citizenship in the North and the South would be allowed,[80] but upon the independence of South Sudan he retracted the offer. He has also suggested an EU-style confederation.[106]Essam Sharaf, Prime Minister of Egypt after the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, made his first foreign visit to Khartoum and Juba in the lead-up to South Sudan's secession.[107] Israel quickly recognized South Sudan as an independent country,[108] and is host to thousands of refugees from South Sudan, many of whom have finally been granted temporary resident status more than a decade later.[109] According to American sources, President Obama officially recognised the new state after Sudan, Egypt, Germany and Kenya were among the first to recognise the country's independence on 8 July 2011.[110][111] Several states that participated in the international negotiations concluded with a self-determination referendum were also quick to acknowledge the overwhelming result. The Rationalist process included Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea, the United Kingdom and Norway.[112][a]
Full membership in the Arab League has been assured, should the country's government choose to seek it,[123] though it could also opt for observer status.[124] It was admitted to UNESCO on 3 November 2011.[125] On 25 November 2011, it officially joined the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, a regional grouping of East African states.[126]
The United States supported the 2011 referendum on South Sudan's independence. The New York Times reported, "South Sudan is in many ways an American creation, carved out of war-torn Sudan in a referendum largely orchestrated by the United States, its fragile institutions nurtured with billions of dollars in American aid."[127] The U.S. government's long-standing sanctions against Sudan were officially removed from applicability to newly independent South Sudan in December 2011, and senior RSS officials participated in a high-level international engagement conference in Washington, D.C., to help connect foreign investors with the RSS and South Sudanese private sector representatives.[128] Given the interdependence between some sectors of the economy of the Republic of South Sudan and the Republic of Sudan, certain activities still require OFAC authorization. Absent a licence, current Sudanese sanction regulations will continue to prohibit U.S. persons from dealing in property and interests that benefit Sudan or the Government of Sudan.[129] A 2011 Congressional Research Service report, "The Republic of South Sudan: Opportunities and Challenges for Africa's Newest Country", identifies outstanding political and humanitarian issues as the country forges its future.[130]
In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including South Sudan, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.[131]
The UAE lent South Sudan $12 billion for a period of 20 years. The loan agreement was signed between South Sudan and an Emirati firm owned by Hamad bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, the sources of whose wealth and investments have been suspicions during the failed takeover of Beitar Jerusalem FC. The loan deposit was directed to an Emirati bank account, of which 70% were allocated to infrastructure facilities. As per the agreement, South Sudan was to repay by the means of oil shipments, priced at $10 per barrel less than its market value. Additional oil shipments were agreed in case of decrease in oil prices. The agreement took no account of the Sudan war.[132][133]
A Defence paper was initiated in 2007 by then Minister for SPLA Affairs Dominic Dim Deng, and a draft was produced in 2008. It declared that Southern Sudan would eventually maintain land, air, and riverine forces.[134][135]
Campaigns of atrocities against civilians have been attributed to the SPLA.[137] In the SPLA/M's attempt to disarm rebellions among the Shilluk and Murle, they burned scores of villages, raped hundreds of women and girls and killed an untold number of civilians.[138] Civilians alleging torture claim fingernails being torn out, burning plastic bags dripped on children to make their parents hand over weapons, and villagers burned alive in their huts if it was suspected that rebels had spent the night there.[138] In May 2011, the SPLA allegedly set fire to over 7,000 homes in Unity State.[139]
The UN reports many of these violations and the frustrated director of one Juba-based international aid agency calls them "human rights abuses off the Richter scale".[138] In 2010, the CIA issued a warning that "over the next five years ... a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan."[138] The Nuer White Army has stated it wished to "wipe out the entire Murle tribe on the face of the earth as the only solution to guarantee long-term security of Nuer's cattle"[54] and activists, including Minority Rights Group International, warned of genocide in Jonglei.[140] At the beginning of 2017, genocide was imminent again.[141]
Peter Abdul Rahaman Sule, the leader of the key opposition group United Democratic Forum, has been under arrest since 3 November 2011 over allegations linking him to the formation of a new rebel group fighting against the government.[142][143]
The United Nations rights office has described the situation in the country as "one of the most horrendous human rights situations in the world". It accused the army and allied militias of allowing fighters to rape women as form of payment for fighting, as well as raid cattle in an agreement of "do what you can, take what you can."[148]Amnesty International claimed the army suffocated more than 60 people accused of supporting the opposition to death in a shipping container.[149]
On 22 December 2017, at the conclusion of a 12-day visit to the region, the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan said, "Four years following the start of the current conflict in South Sudan, gross human rights violations continue to be committed in a widespread way by all parties to the conflict, in which civilians are bearing the brunt."[150] The Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan was established by the Human Rights Council in March 2016.[150]
The oilfields in South Sudan have been significant to the economy since the latter part of the 20th century. In 2023, oil constitutes more than 90% of state revenues.[151] The country has the third-largest oil reserves in Sub-Saharan Africa.[154] However, after South Sudan became an independent nation in July 2011, southern and northern negotiators were not immediately able to reach an agreement on how to split the revenue from these southern oilfields.[155]
Oil and gas concessions in Sudan – 2004
It is estimated that South Sudan has around 4 times the oil deposits of Sudan. The oil revenues, according to the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), were split equally for the duration of the agreement period.[156] Since South Sudan relies on pipelines, refineries, and Port Sudan's facilities in Red Sea state in Sudan, the agreement stated that the government of Sudan in Khartoum would receive a 50% share of all oil revenues.[156][157] This arrangement was maintained during the second period of autonomy from 2005 to 2011.
In the run up to independence, northern negotiators reportedly pressed for a deal maintaining the 50–50 split of oil revenues, while the South Sudanese were holding out for more favourable terms.[157] Oil revenues constitute more than 98% of the government of South Sudan's budget according to the southern government's Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning and this has amounted to more than $8 billion in revenue since the signing of the peace agreement.[156]
After independence, South Sudan objected to Sudan charging US$34 per barrel to transport oil through the pipeline to the oil terminal at Port Sudan. With production of around 30,000 barrels per day, this was costing over a million dollars per day. In January 2012, South Sudan suspended oil production, causing a dramatic reduction in revenue and food costs to rise by 120%.[158] In 2017, Nile Drilling & Services became South Sudan's first locally owned and run petroleum drilling company.
In terms of South Sudan's external debt, Sudan and South Sudan maintain a shared debt of approximately US$38 billion, all of which has accumulated throughout the past five decades.[160] Though a small portion of this debt is owed to such international institutions as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (approximately US$5.3 billion according to a 2009 report provided by the Bank of Sudan), the bulk of its debt load is actually owed to numerous foreign actors that have provided the nation with financial loans, including the Paris Club (over US$11 billion) and also non-Paris Club bilateral creditors (over US$13 billion).[161]
The Paris Club refers to an informal group of financial officials from 19 of the world's most influential economies, including such member nations as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Canada, while non-Paris Club bilateral creditors refers to any entity that does not enjoy permanent/associated status as a Paris Club member.[162] Private bilateral creditors (i.e. private commercial banks and private credit suppliers) account for the majority of the remainder (approximately US$6 billion of the total debt).[163]
East African Community membership
The presidents of Kenya and Rwanda invited the Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan to apply for membership to the East African Community upon the independence of South Sudan in 2011,[115][164] and South Sudan was reportedly an applicant country as of mid-July 2011.[115][165] Analysts suggested that South Sudan's early efforts to integrate infrastructure, including rail links and oil pipelines,[166] with systems in Kenya and Uganda indicated intention on the part of Juba to pivot away from dependence on Sudan and toward the EAC.
On 17 September 2011, the Daily Nation quoted a South Sudanese MP as saying that while his government was eager to join the EAC, it would likely delay its membership over concerns that its economy was not sufficiently developed to compete with EAC member states and could become a "dumping ground" for Kenyan, Tanzanian, and Ugandan exports.[167] This was contradicted by President Salva Kiir, who announced South Sudan had officially embarked on the application process one month later.[168] The application was initially deferred by the EAC in December 2012,[169] and incidents with Ugandan boda-boda operators in South Sudan created political tension.[170]
In December 2012, Tanzania officially agreed to South Sudan's bid to join the EAC, clearing the way for the world's newest state to become the regional bloc's sixth member.[171] In May 2013, the EAC set aside $82,000 for the admission process. Starting after the EAC Council of Ministers meeting in August 2013, was projected to take at least four years. At the 14th Ordinary Summit held in Nairobi in 2012, EAC heads of state approved the verification report that was presented by the Council of Ministers, then directed it to start the negotiation process with South Sudan.[172]
A team was formed to assess South Sudan's bid; however, in April 2014, the nation requested a delay in the admissions process, presumably due to South Sudanese Civil War.[173][174]
South Sudan's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Barnaba Marial Benjamin, claimed publicly in October 2015 that, following unpublished evaluations and meetings of a special technical committee in May, June, August, September and October, the committee has recommended that South Sudan be allowed to join the East African Community.[175]
South Sudan was eventually approved for membership in East African Community in March 2016,[176] and formally acceded with the signature of the treaty in April 2016.[177]
South Sudan has 248 km (154 mi) of single-track 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) gauge railway line from the Sudanese border to Wau terminus. There are proposed extensions from Wau to Juba. There are also plans to link Juba with the Kenyan and Ugandan railway networks.
Other international airports include Malakal, with international flights to Addis Ababa and Khartoum; Wau, with weekly service to Khartoum; and Rumbek, also with weekly flights to Khartoum. Southern Sudan Airlines also serves Nimule and Akobo, which have unpaved runways. Several smaller airports exist throughout South Sudan, the majority consisting of little more than dirt runways.
On 4 April 2012, plans were unveiled to launch a South Sudanese national airline, primarily for domestic service at first but eventually expanding to international service.[180]
The water supply in South Sudan is faced with numerous challenges. Although the White Nile runs through the country, water is scarce during the dry season in areas that are not located on the river.
About half the population does not have access to an improved water source, defined as a protected well, standpipe or a handpump within one kilometre. The few existing piped water supply systems are often not well maintained and the water they provide is often not safe to drink. Displaced people returning home put a huge strain on infrastructure, and the government institutions in charge of the sector are weak. Substantial external funding from numerous government agencies and non-governmental organizations is available to improve water supply.
Numerous non-governmental organizations support water supply in Southern Sudan, such as Water is Basic, Water for South Sudan, the Obakki Foundation[181] and Bridgton-Lake Region Rotary Club[182] from North America.
South Sudan has a population of approximately 11 million[183][184] and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been negatively affected by war for all but 10 of the years since 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are internally displaced persons or became refugees as a result of the civil war and its impact.
Children in Yambio, Western Equatoria, South SudanRural school children participating in the USAID-funded Southern Sudan Interactive Radio Instruction project, July 2010
Population
2008 census
Woman in South SudanA village in South Sudan
The "Fifth Population and Housing Census of Sudan", for Sudan as a whole, was conducted in April 2008. The census counted the Southern Sudan population at 8.26 million;[185][186] however, Southern Sudanese officials rejected the census results of Southern Sudan because "the central bureau of statistics in Khartoum refused to share the national Sudan raw census data with the southern Sudan centre for census, statistics and evaluation".[187]
In addition, President Kiir "suspected figures were being deflated in some regions and inflated in others, and that made the final tally 'unacceptable'."[188] He claimed that the Southern Sudanese population actually constituted one-third of that of Sudan, though the census showed it to be only 22%.[186]
Many southern Sudanese were also said to have been uncounted "due to bad weather, poor communication and transport networks, and some areas were unreachable, while many southern Sudanese remained in exile in neighbouring countries, leading to 'unacceptable results', according [to] southern Sudanese authorities."[188] The chief American technical adviser for the census in the south said that the census-takers probably reached only 89% of the population.[189]
2009 census
In 2009, Sudan initiated a Southern Sudanese census ahead of the 2011 independence referendum, which would also include the South Sudanese diaspora; however, this initiative was criticised for leaving out countries with a high share of the South Sudanese diaspora, rather counting countries where the diaspora share was low.[190]
Ethnic groups
The major ethnic groups present in South Sudan are the Dinka at approximately 40 percent of the population, the Nuer at approximately 20 percent, and the Azande at approximately 10 percent, as well as the Shilluk and Bari.[191] Currently, around 800,000 expatriates from the Horn of Africa are living in South Sudan. [citation needed]
The South Sudanese diaspora consists of citizens of South Sudan residing abroad. The number of South Sudanese outside South Sudan has sharply increased since the beginning of the struggle for independence from Sudan. Almost one and a half million South Sudanese have left the country as refugees, either permanently or as temporary workforce, leading to the establishment of the South Sudanese diaspora population.[citation needed]
The largest communities of the South Sudanese diaspora are located in North America, Western Europe and Oceania. They can be found in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom and Australia. Small communities exist in France, Italy, Germany, Sweden, and New Zealand.[192]
Activist Achol Jok Mach has spoken out about growing up and growing up in a diaspora community and the effect on her identity, saying: "I was only ever told, 'You are South Sudanese'... It was only much later that I learned I was Dinka."[193]
Largest cities
Largest cities or towns in South Sudan According to the 2008 Census[194]
There are 70 languages spoken in South Sudan, of which 60 are indigenous and granted constitutional status as "national languages" that "shall be respected, developed and promoted".[195] English is the sole official language,[1] being constitutionally enshrined as the "official working language" of government and the "language of instruction at all levels of education".[196] English had been the principal language of what is now South Sudan since 1972, serving as the common medium for administrative purposes.[197] However, few South Sudanese speak it as a first language.[198]
The majority of languages spoken in South Sudan are classified within the Nilo-Saharan Language family, specifically the subbranches of Nile Sudanic and Central Sudanic; most of the remainder are part of the Adamawa-Ubangi branch of the Niger-Congo family. The most common languages are Nuer (4.35 million), Bari (595,000) Dinka (940,000) or Zande (420,000), which are collectively spoken by approximately 60% of the population;[198] other major indigenous languages include Murle, Luo, Ma'di, and Otuho. Six indigenous languages are threatened with extinction, with another 11 declining.[198]
Arabic, a Semitic language of the Afroasiatic family, is the most widely spoken language.[199] The most common variety is Juba Arabic, also known as South Sudanese Arabic, a creole language that serves as the lingua franca for local governments, national commerce, and in urban areas.[200] It is spoken by approximately 1.45 million people, of whom only 250,000 speak it natively. Sudanese Arabic, the prevailing dialect in Sudan, has approximately 460,000 speakers, primarily in the northern regions of South Sudan; it has been described as the de facto language of national identity.[198] Arabic had been recognized as South Sudan's second official language, alongside English, in its 2005 interim constitution,[201] but has no legal status in the current transitional constitution adopted in 2011.
Swahili, a Bantu language spoken primarily in East Africa, has been proposed as a second official language. In 2011, South Sudan's ambassador to Kenya stated that Swahili would be introduced in South Sudan with the goal of supplanting Arabic as a lingua franca, in keeping with the country's orientation toward the East African Community rather than Sudan and the Arab League.[202] Following the South Sudan's ascension to the East African Community in 2019, the government has moved to adopt Swahili into the official curricula at primary school.[203][204] Nevertheless, South Sudan submitted an application to join the Arab League as a member state on 25 March 2014, which is still pending.[205] In an interview with the newspaper Asharq Al-Awsat, the Foreign Minister of South Sudan Deng Alor Kuol said: South Sudan is the closest African country to the Arab world, and we speak a special kind of Arabic known as Juba Arabic.[206] Sudan supports South Sudan's request to join the Arab League.[207] Juba Arabic is a lingua franca in South Sudan.
According to various nongovernmental sources, in 2020, the majority of the population (60.5%) was Christian, followed by adherents of traditional African religions (32.9%) and Muslims (6.2%).[214][215] This proportion was largely unchanged from the prior decade.[216] Other religions with small populations include the Baha’i Faith, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Judaism.[212]
Christianity has grown rapidly in the country over the last two decades. Despite European missionary activity beginning as early as the mid-19th century, the U.S. Library of Congress states that "in the early 1990s possibly no more than 10% of southern Sudan's population was Christian".[221] During this same period, official records of Sudan claimed that one-quarter of the population of present-day South Sudan practiced various traditional religions while only 5% were Christians.[222] Various scholarly sources, as well as the U.S. Department of State,[223] stated that a majority of southern Sudanese maintained traditional animist indigenous beliefs at the start of the 21st century, with Christians remaining a small minority.[224][225][226]
As in other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Christianity is often blended with traditional beliefs.[227] In 2022, the new Catholic bishop of Rumbek, Christian Carlassare, observed that while more than half the population of South Sudan is Christian, "Christianity is often no more than skin deep" and "hasn't grown roots in the life of the population".[228] Many religious organizations function as a source of stability, community, humanitarian aid, and refuge in the absence of government institutions, with Christian and Muslim religious leaders actively involved in peacebuilding and socioeconomic development.[212]
Indigenous animist beliefs remain widespread among the population regardless of religious affiliation. Additionally, each ethnic group has its own traditional belief system, all of which share a concept of a higher spirit or divinity, generally a creator god.[197] Traditional African cosmology divides the universe between a visible material realm and an invisible heavenly realm, which is populated by spiritual beings that serve as intermediaries or messengers of a higher power; in the case of the Nilotic peoples, these spirits are identified with ancestors. The supreme deity is worshipped through rituals that utilize music and dance.
Although the internal conflicts that precipitated Sudan's partition have been characterized as between Muslims and Christians, some scholars reject this notion, claiming Muslim and Christian sides sometimes overlapped.[229] Muslims are relatively well integrated into South Sudanese society and represented in government; Muslim religious leaders are present in all major political ceremonies as well as peace negotiations. Islamic private schools are maintained with little government involvement, while many secondary institutions include Islamic theology in their curricula.[212]
In 2011, inaugural South SudanesePresidentSalva Kiir, a Roman Catholic, said that South Sudan would be a nation that respects freedom of religion.[230] The country's transitional constitution provides for separation of religion and state, prohibits religious discrimination, and provides religious groups freedom to worship, assemble, proselytize, own property, receive financial contributions, communicate and publish materials on religious matters, and establish charitable institutions.[212] Interreligious conflict occurs largely in the context of ethnic and communal conflict; for example, in February 2022, clashes between Dinka clans resulted in the targeting of associated religious buildings and leaders.[212]
Unlike the previous educational system of the regional Southern Sudan—which was modelled after the system used in the Republic of Sudan since 1990—the current educational system of the Republic of South Sudan follows the 8 + 4 + 4 system (similar to Kenya). Primary education consists of eight years, followed by four years of secondary education, and then four years of university instruction.
The primary language at all levels is English, as compared to the Republic of Sudan, where the language of instruction is Arabic. In 2007, South Sudan adopted English as the official language of communication. There is a severe shortage of English teachers and English-speaking teachers in the scientific and technical fields.
On 1 October 2019, the South Sudan Library Foundation opened South Sudan's first public library, the Juba Public Peace Library in Gudele 2.[231][232] The library currently employs a staff of over 40 volunteers and maintains a collection of over 13,000 books.[232] The South Sudan Library Foundation was co-founded by Yawusa Kintha and Kevin Lenahan.[231][232][233]
According to the United Nations, there are 8.3 million people in need of humanitarian aid in South Sudan as of January 2021.[234] South Sudan is acknowledged to have some of the worst health indicators in the world.[235][236][237] The under-five infant mortality rate is 135.3 per 1,000, whilst maternal mortality is the highest in the world at 2,053.9 per 100,000 live births.[237] In 2004, there were only three surgeons serving in southern Sudan, with three proper hospitals, and in some areas there was just one doctor for every 500,000 people.[235]
The epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the South Sudan is poorly documented but the prevalence is believed around 3.1%.[238] According to a 2013 study, South Sudan "probably has the highest malaria burden in sub-SaharanAfrica".[239] South Sudan is one of the few countries where dracunculiasis still occurs.[240][241][242]
At the time of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, humanitarian needs in Southern Sudan were massive. However, humanitarian organizations under the leadership of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) managed to ensure sufficient funding to bring relief to the local populations. Along with recovery and development aid, humanitarian projects were included in the 2007 Work Plan of the United Nations and partners. More than 90% of the population of South Sudan live on less than $1 a day, despite the GDP per capita of the entirety of Sudan being $1200 ($3.29/day).[243]
In 2007, the United Nations OCHA (under the leadership of Éliane Duthoit) decreased its involvement in Southern Sudan, as humanitarian needs gradually diminished, slowly but markedly turning over control to the recovery and development activities of NGOs and community-based organisations.[244]
Famine reportedly led to deaths in Bentiu and Latjor states in mid-2011, though the state governments of both denied hunger there was severe enough to cause fatalities.[245]
In Pibor County located in the Jonglei State, in December 2011 and January 2012, cattle raids led to border clashes that eventually resulted in widespread ethnic violence, with thousands of deaths and tens of thousands of South Sudanese being displaced, and hundreds of Médecins Sans Frontières staff went missing. The government declared the area a disaster zone and took control from local authorities.[246] South Sudan has a very high rate of child marriage.[247]Violence against women is common in the country, and South Sudan's laws and policies have been criticized as inadequate in offering protection.[248][249]
Refugees
Jamam refugee camp
As of February 2014, South Sudan was host to over 230,000 refugees, with the vast majority, over 209,000, having arrived recently from Sudan, because of the War in Darfur. Other African countries that contribute the most refugees to South Sudan are the Central African Republic, Ethiopia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[250] As a result of the war that erupted in December 2013, more than 2.3 million people – one in every five people in South Sudan – have been forced to flee their homes, including 1.66 million internally displaced people (with 53.4 per cent estimated to be children) and nearly 644,900 refugees in neighbouring countries. Some 185,000 internally displaced people (IDPs) have sought refuge in UN Protection of Civilians (PoC) sites, while around 90 percent of IDPs are on the run or sheltering outside PoC sites.[251] Consequently, UNHCR is stepping up its response through an inter-agency collaborative approach under the leadership of the Humanitarian Coordinator, and working with the International Organization for Migration (IOM). In early February 2013, UNHCR started distributing relief items outside the UN base in Malakal, South Sudan, which was expected to reach 10,000 people.[250]
Due to the many years of civil war, South Sudan's culture is heavily influenced by its neighbours. Many South Sudanese fled to Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda where they interacted with the nationals and learned their languages and culture. Most of those who remained in Sudan until or after independence partially assimilated to Sudanese culture and speak Juba Arabic or Sudanese Arabic.
Most South Sudanese value knowing one's tribal origin, its traditional culture and dialect even while in exile and diaspora. Although the common languages spoken are Juba Arabic and English, Swahili might be introduced to the population to improve the country's relations with its East African neighbours.[citation needed]
Music
Many music artists from South Sudan use English, Swahili, Juba Arabic, their native African language or a mix of all. Popular artists like Barbz, Yaba Angelosi, De Peace Child sing Afro-beat, R&B, and Zouk; Dynamq is popular for his reggae releases; and Emmanuel Kembe who sings folk, reggae and Afro-beat.[252] Also hip hop artists like Emmanuel Jal, FTG Metro, Flizzame and Dugga Mulla (of FMG). Emmanuel being one of the South Sudaneses music artists who have broken through on an international level[253] with his unique form of hip hop and a positive message in his lyrics.[254] Jal, a former child soldier turned musician, received good airplay and album reviews in the UK[255] and has also been sought out for the lecture circuit with major talks at popular talkfests like TED.[256]
While former Information Minister Barnaba Marial Benjamin vowed that South Sudan will respect freedom of the press and allow journalists unrestricted access in the country, the chief editor of Juba newspaper The Citizen claimed that in the absence of a formal media law in the fledgling republic, he and his staff have faced abuse at the hands of security forces. This alleged fettering of media freedom was attributed in an Al Jazeera report to the difficulty SPLM has faced in reforming itself as a legitimate government after years of leading a rebellion against the Sudanese government. The Citizen is South Sudan's largest newspaper, but poor infrastructure and poverty have kept its staff relatively small and limited the efficiency of both its reporting and its circulation outside of Juba, with no dedicated news bureaus in outlying states and newspapers often taking several days to reach states like Northern Bahr el Ghazal.[257] In May 2020, South Sudan Friendship Press was established as the country's first dedicated online news website.[258]Nile citizens is laid out as the nation's committed web-based news site.[259]
Censorship
On 1 November 2011, South Sudan's National Security Services (NSS) arrested the editor of a private Juba-based daily, Destiny, and suspended its activities indefinitely. This was in response to an opinion article by columnist Dengdit Ayok, entitled "Let Me Say So", which criticized the president for allowing his daughter to marry an Ethiopian national, and accused him of "staining his patriotism". An official letter accused the newspaper of breaking "the media code of conduct and professional ethics", and of publishing "illicit news" that was defamatory, inciting, and invading the privacy of personalities. The Committee to Protect Journalists had voiced concerns over media freedoms in South Sudan in September.[260] The NSS released the journalists without charge after having held them for 18 days.[261]
In 2015, Salva Kiir threatened to kill journalists who reported "against the country".[262] Work conditions have become terrible for journalists, and many have left the country, such as documentarian Ochan Hannington.[263] In August 2015, after journalist Peter Moi was killed in a targeted attack, being the seventh journalist killed during the year, South Sudanese journalists held a 24-hour news blackout.[264]
In August 2017, a 26-year-old American journalist, Christopher Allen, was killed in Kaya, Yei River State, during fighting between government and opposition forces. Christopher Allen was a freelance journalist who had worked for several U.S. news outlets. He had been reportedly embedded with the opposition forces in South Sudan for a week before he was killed.[265] The same month, President Salva Kiir said the millions of civilians fleeing South Sudan were being driven by the propaganda from social media users conspiring against his government.[266] Just a month prior in July 2017, access to major news websites and popular blogs including Sudan Tribune and Radio Tamazuj had been blocked by the government without formal notice.[267] In June 2020, access to Sudans Post, a local news website, was blocked by the government following the publication of an article deemed defamatory by the NSS.[268] Two months later, Qurium Media Foundation, a Swedish non-profit organization, announced that it has deployed a mirror for the website to circumvent the government blocking.[269]
Many traditional and modern games and sports are popular in South Sudan, particularly wrestling and mock battles. The traditional sports were mainly played after the harvest seasons to celebrate the harvests and finish the farming seasons. During the matches, they smeared themselves with ochre – perhaps to enhance the grip or heighten their perception. The matches attracted large numbers of spectators who sang, played drums and danced in support of their favourite wrestlers. Though these were perceived as competition, they were primarily for entertainment.[270]Association football is also becoming popular in South Sudan, and there are many initiatives by the Government of South Sudan and other partners to promote the sport and improve the level of play. One of these initiatives is South Sudan Youth Sports Association (SSYSA). SSYSA is already holding football clinics in Konyokonyo and Muniki areas of Juba in which young boys are coached. In recognition of these efforts with youth football, the country recently hosted the CECAFA youth football competitions. Barely a month earlier, it had also hosted the larger East African Schools Sports tournaments.[citation needed]
One athlete from South Sudan, Guor Marial, competed in the 2012 Summer Olympics. Due to South Sudan not yet having an official Olympics organization, and Marial not yet possessing American citizenship, he, along with three athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles, competed under the banner of Independent Olympic Athletes.
^The Transitional Constitution of the Republic of South Sudan, Part One, 6(1): "All indigenous languages of South Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed and promoted".[2]
^Manfredi Stefano; Tosco Mauro (2013), Language uses vs. language policy: South Sudan and Juba Arabic in the post-independence eraArchived 9 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine (PDF; 301 kB), Pages 798–802, III Congresso Coordinamento Universitario per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo, Sep 2013, Turin, Italy. JUNCO, Journal of Universities and International Development Cooperation, 2014, Imagining Cultures of Cooperation – Proceedings of the III CUCS Congress, Turin 19–21 September 2013, Retrieved 9 September 2018
^International Association for the History of Religions (1959). Numen. Leiden: EJ Brill. p. 131. West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the West to the Cameroons in the East; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs
^Matthew LeRiche, Matthew Arnold. South Sudan: from revolution to independence. 2012. Ethnic Groups and Flashpoints. p. xv. Columbia University Press. New York. ISBN978-0-231-70414-4
^ abLevering Lewis, David (1995). The Race to Fashoda. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
^Fick, Maggie & Straziuso, Jason (2 June 2011). "Civilians dead in South Sudan battle". The Boson Globe. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2013.
^Burgess, Neil; D'Amico Hales, Jennifer; Underwood, Emma (2004). Terrestrial Ecoregions of Africa and Madagascar: A Conservation Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. ISBN978-1-55963-364-2.
^D. H. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars
^Prieto, Fernando (18 November 2014), "Did the US act as a 'defensive-positionalist' power and was it primary moved by local and regional stability concerns when it recognized South Sudan in 2011?", Research Study SIS 686
^Maxwell, Daniel, and Ben Watkins. "Humanitarian information systems and emergencies in the Greater Horn of Africa: logical components and logical linkages". Disasters 27.1 (2003): 72–90.
^"Slinding towards genocide". D+C, development and cooperation. 13 January 2017. Archived from the original on 28 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
^"South Sudan Refugee Crisis"(PDF). University of Virginia School of Medicine. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 April 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
^"Sveriges flyktingkvot". migrationsverket.se (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
^Minahan, J. (2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S-Z. Greenwood Press. p. 1786. ISBN978-0-313-32384-3.
^Arnold, G (2003). "Book Review: Douglas H. Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars". African Journal of Political Science. 8 (1): 147.
^"Sudan : Country Studies". Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 22 March 2011. Archived from the original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
^According to the WHO: "The 10 countries with the highest rates of child marriage are: Niger, 75%; Chad and Central African Republic, 68%; Bangladesh, 66%; Guinea, 63%; Mozambique, 56%; Mali, 55%; Burkina Faso and South Sudan, 52%; and Malawi, 50%. "[1]Archived 24 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
^Hannington, Ochan (31 October 2015). "Risking my life". D+C, development and cooperation. Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
Walter C. Soderlund, E. Donald Briggs, The Independence of South Sudan: The Role of Mass Media in the Responsibility to Prevent, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2014. pp. $38.99 (paper), ISBN978-1-77112-117-0
Mohamed Omer Beshir: The Southern Sudan. Background to Conflict. C. Hurst & Co., London 1968.
Biel, Melha Rout (2007). South Sudan after the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Jena: Netzbandt Verlag. ISBN978-3-937884-01-1.
Daly, M. W.; Rolandsen, Øystein H. (2016). A History of South Sudan: From Slavery to Independence. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-11631-2. OCLC921821890.
Tvedt, Terje (2004). South Sudan. An Annotated Bibliography. (2 vols) (2nd ed.). London/New York: IB Tauris. ISBN978-1-86064-987-5.
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