List of central banks

This is a list of central banks.

Central banks by alphabetical order

This is a list of central banks. Countries that are only partially recognized internationally are marked with an asterisk (*).

Country name Currency Central bank name Native name Establishment
 Abkhazia* Abkhazian Apsar National Bank of the Republic of Abkhazia Аԥсны Аҳәынҭқарра Амилаҭтә Банк / Национальный банк Республики Абхазия 1991
 Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Afghan afghani Da Afghanistan Bank بانک مرکزی افغانستان /
د افغانستان بانک 		1939
 Albania Albanian lek Bank of Albania Banka e Shqipërisë 1925
 Algeria Algerian dinar Bank of Algeria بنك الجزائر / Banque d'Algérie 1962
 Andorra Euro No central bank; uses the euro as its domestic currency
 Angola Angolan kwanza National Bank of Angola Banco Nacional de Angola 1926
 Anguilla Eastern Caribbean dollar Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 1983
 Antigua and Barbuda Eastern Caribbean dollar Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 1983
 Argentina Argentine peso Central Bank of Argentina Banco Central de la República Argentina 1935
 Armenia Armenian dram Central Bank of Armenia Հայաստանի Կենտրոնական Բանկ 1991
 Aruba Aruban florin Central Bank of Aruba Centrale Bank van Aruba /
Banco Central di Aruba 		1986
 Australia Australian dollar Reserve Bank of Australia 1960
 Austria Euro European Central Bank (Oesterreichische Nationalbank) Oesterreichische Nationalbank 1816
 Azerbaijan Azerbaijani manat Central Bank of Azerbaijan Azərbaycan Mərkəzi Bankı 1992
 Bahamas Bahamian dollar Central Bank of The Bahamas 1974
 Bahrain Bahraini dinar Central Bank of Bahrain مصرف البحرين المركزي 1973
 Bangladesh Bangladeshi taka Bangladesh Bank বাংলাদেশ ব্যাংক 1971
 Barbados Barbadian dollar Central Bank of Barbados 1972
 Belarus Belarusian ruble National Bank of the Republic of Belarus Нацыянальны банк Рэспублікі Беларусь / Национальный банк Республики Беларусь 1992
 Belgium Euro European Central Bank (National Bank of Belgium) Nationale Bank van België /
Banque nationale de Belgique /
Belgische Nationalbank 		1850
 Belize Belize dollar Central Bank of Belize 1982
 Benin West African CFA franc Central Bank of West African States Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest 1959
 Bermuda Bermudan dollar Bermuda Monetary Authority 1969
 Bhutan Bhutanese ngultrum Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan བྲུག་རྒྱལ་གཞུང་དངུལ་ལས་དབང་འཛིན་ 1982
 Bolivia Bolivian boliviano Central Bank of Bolivia Banco Central de Bolivia 1928
 Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina Centralna Banka Bosne i Hercegovine / Централна банка Босне и Херцеговине 1997
 Botswana Botswana pula Bank of Botswana Banka ya Botswana 1975
 Brazil Brazilian real Central Bank of Brazil Banco Central do Brasil 1964
 Brunei Brunei dollar Brunei Darussalam Central Bank Bank Pusat Brunei Darussalam 2011
 Bulgaria Bulgarian lev Bulgarian National Bank Българска народна банка 1879
 Burkina Faso West African CFA franc Central Bank of West African States Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest 1959
 Burundi Burundian franc Bank of the Republic of Burundi Banque de la République du Burundi / Ibanki ya Republika y'UBurundi 1966
 Cambodia Cambodian riel National Bank of Cambodia ធនាគារជាតិ នៃ កម្ពុជា 1954
 Cameroon Central African CFA franc Bank of Central African States Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale 1972
 Canada Canadian dollar Bank of Canada Banque du Canada 1935
 Cape Verde Cape Verdean escudo Bank of Cape Verde Banco de Cabo Verde 1975
 Cayman Islands Cayman Islands dollar Cayman Islands Monetary Authority 1997
 Central African Republic Central African CFA franc Bank of Central African States Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale 1972
 Chad Central African CFA franc Bank of Central African States Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale / البنك المركزي لدول وسط إفريقيا 1972
 Chile Chilean peso Central Bank of Chile Banco Central de Chile 1925
 China Renminbi People's Bank of China 中国人民銀行 1948
 Colombia Colombian peso Bank of the Republic Banco de la República 1923
 Comoros Comorian franc Central Bank of the Comoros Banque Centrale des Comores /
البنك المركزي لجزر القمر 		1981
 Congo, Democratic Republic of Congolese franc Central Bank of the Congo Banque Centrale du Congo 1964
 Congo, Republic of Central African CFA franc Bank of Central African States Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale 1972
 Costa Rica Costa Rican colón Central Bank of Costa Rica Banco Central de Costa Rica 1950
 Cote d'Ivoire West African CFA franc Central Bank of West African States Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest 1959
 Croatia Euro European Central Bank (Croatian National Bank) Hrvatska narodna banka 1990
 Cuba Cuban peso Central Bank of Cuba Banco Central de Cuba 1948
 Curaçao Netherlands Antillean guilder Central Bank of Curaçao and Sint Maarten Centrale bank van Curaçao en Sint Maarten / Banko Sentral di Kòrsou i Sint Maarten 1828
 Cyprus Euro European Central Bank (Central Bank of Cyprus) Κεντρική Τράπεζα της Κύπρου /
Kıbrıs Merkez Bankası 		1963
 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus* Turkish lira Central Bank of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti Merkez Bankası 1983
 Czech Republic Czech koruna Czech National Bank Česká národní banka 1993
 Denmark Danish krone Danmarks Nationalbank 1818
 Djibouti Djiboutian franc Central Bank of Djibouti Banque Centrale de Djibouti /
البنك المركزي الجيبوتي 		1979
 Dominica Eastern Caribbean dollar Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 1983
 Dominican Republic Dominican peso Central Bank of the Dominican Republic Banco Central de la República Dominicana 1947
 East Timor United States dollar East Timor Central Bank Banco Central de Timor-Leste /
Banku Sentrál Timór Lorosa'e 		2011
 Ecuador United States dollar Central Bank of Ecuador Banco Central del Ecuador 1927
 Egypt Egyptian pound Central Bank of Egypt البنك المركزي المصري 1961
 El Salvador United States dollar Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador Banco Central de Reserva de El Salvador 1934
 Equatorial Guinea Central African CFA franc Bank of Central African States Banco de los Estados de África Central / Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale / Banco dos Estados da África Central 1972
 Eritrea Eritrean nakfa Bank of Eritrea ባንክ ኤርትረ 1993
 Estonia Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Estonia) Eesti Pank 1990
 Eswatini Swazi lilangeni Central Bank of Eswatini Umntsholi Wemaswati 1974
 Ethiopia Ethiopian birr National Bank of Ethiopia የኢትዮጵያ ብሔራዊ ባንክ 1963
 Faroe Islands Faroese króna Danmarks Nationalbank Danmarkar Tjóðarbanki 1818
 Fiji Fijian dollar Reserve Bank of Fiji Maroroi Baqe ni Viti 1984
 Finland Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Finland) Suomen Pankki / Finlands Bank 1812
 France Euro European Central Bank (Bank of France) Banque de France 1800
 Gabon Central African CFA franc Bank of Central African States Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale 1972
 The Gambia Gambian dalasi Central Bank of The Gambia 1971
 Germany Euro European Central Bank (Deutsche Bundesbank) 1957
 Georgia Georgian lari National Bank of Georgia საქართველოს ეროვნული ბანკი 1991
 Ghana Ghanaian cedi Bank of Ghana 1957
 Greece Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Greece) Τράπεζα της Ελλάδος 1928
 Grenada Eastern Caribbean dollar Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 1983
 Greenland Danish krone Danmarks Nationalbank Naalagaaffiup Aningaaseriviutaa 1818
 Guatemala Guatemalan quetzal Bank of Guatemala Banco de Guatemala 1945
 Guinea Guinean franc Central Bank of the Republic of Guinea Banque Centrale de la République de Guinée 1960
 Guinea-Bissau West African CFA franc Central Bank of West African States Banco Central dos Estados da África Ocidental 1959
 Guyana Guyanese dollar Bank of Guyana 1965
 Haiti Haitian gourde Bank of the Republic of Haiti Banque de la République d'Haïti / Bank Repiblik Ayiti 1979
 Hong Kong Hong Kong dollar Hong Kong Monetary Authority 香港金融管理局 1993
 Honduras Honduran lempira Central Bank of Honduras Banco Central de Honduras 1950
 Hungary Hungarian forint Hungarian National Bank Magyar Nemzeti Bank 1924
 Iceland Icelandic króna Central Bank of Iceland Seðlabanki Íslands 1961
 India Indian rupee Reserve Bank of India भारतीय रिज़र्व बैंक 1935
 Indonesia Indonesian rupiah Bank Indonesia 1953
 Iran Iranian rial Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran بانک مرکزی ایران 1960
 Iraq Iraqi dinar Central Bank of Iraq البنك المركزي العراقي /
بانکی ناوەندی عێراق 		1947
 Ireland Euro European Central Bank (Central Bank of Ireland) Banc Ceannais na hÉireann 1943
 Israel Israeli new shekel Bank of Israel בנק ישראל / بنك إسرائيل 1954
 Italy Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Italy) Banca d'Italia 1893
 Jamaica Jamaican dollar Bank of Jamaica 1961
 Japan Japanese yen Bank of Japan 日本銀行 1882
 Jordan Jordanian dinar Central Bank of Jordan البنك المركزي الاردني 1964
 Kazakhstan Kazakhstani tenge National Bank of Kazakhstan Қазақстан Ұлттық Банкі / Qazaqstan Ūlttyq Bankı / Национальный банк Казахстана 1993
 Kenya Kenyan shilling Central Bank of Kenya Benki Kuu ya Kenya 1966
 Kiribati Kiribati dollar No central bank; uses the Australian dollar as its domestic currency
 Korea, Democratic People's Republic of North Korean won Central Bank of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea 조선민주주의인민공화국중앙은행 1947
 Korea, Republic of South Korean won Bank of Korea 한국은행 1950
 Kosovo* Euro Central Bank of Kosovo Banka Qendrore e Republikës së Kosovës / Centralna banka Republike Kosova / Централна банка Републике Косова 2008
 Kuwait Kuwaiti dinar Central Bank of Kuwait بنك الكويت المركزي 1969
 Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstani som National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic Кыргыз Республикасынын Улуттук банкы / Национальный банк Кыргызской Республики 1991
 Laos Lao kip Bank of the Lao People's Democratic Republic ທະນາຄານ ແຫ່ງ ສ. ປ. ປ. ລາວ 1968
 Latvia Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Latvia) Latvijas Banka 1991
 Lebanon Lebanese pound Banque du Liban مصرف لبنان 1963
 Lesotho Lesotho loti Central Bank of Lesotho Banka e Kholo ea Lesotho 1978
 Liberia Liberian dollar Central Bank of Liberia 2000
 Libya Libyan dinar Central Bank of Libya مصرف ليبيا المركزي 1956
 Liechtenstein Swiss franc National Bank of Liechtenstein Liechtensteinische Landesbank 1861
 Lithuania Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Lithuania) Lietuvos Bankas 1990
 Luxembourg Euro European Central Bank (Central Bank of Luxembourg) Banque centrale du Luxembourg / Luxemburger Zentralbank / Zentralbank vu Lëtzebuerg 1998
 Macau Macanese pataca Monetary Authority of Macao 澳門金融管理局
Autoridade Monetária de Macau 		1999
 Madagascar Malagasy ariary Central Bank of Madagascar Banque Centrale de Madagascar / Banky Foiben'i Madagasikara 1974
 Malawi Malawian kwacha Reserve Bank of Malawi 1964
 Malaysia Malaysian ringgit Central Bank of Malaysia Bank Negara Malaysia 1959
 Maldives Maldivian rufiyaa Maldives Monetary Authority 1981
 Mali West African CFA franc Central Bank of West African States Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest 1959
 Malta Euro European Central Bank (Central Bank of Malta) Bank Ċentrali ta’ Malta 1968
 Marshall Islands United States dollar No central bank; uses the United States dollar as its domestic currency
 Mauritania Mauritanian ouguiya Central Bank of Mauritania Banque Centrale de Mauritanie /
البنك المركزي الموريتاني 		1973
 Mauritius Mauritian rupee Bank of Mauritius Banque de Maurice 1967
 Mexico Mexican peso Bank of Mexico Banco de México 1925
 Micronesia United States dollar No central bank; uses the United States dollar as its domestic currency
 Moldova Moldovan leu National Bank of Moldova Banca Națională a Moldovei 1991
 Monaco Euro No central bank; uses the euro as its domestic currency
 Mongolia Mongolian tögrög Bank of Mongolia Монголбанк 1924
 Montenegro Euro Central Bank of Montenegro Centralna Banka Crne Gore / Централна Банка Црне Горе 2001
 Montserrat Eastern Caribbean dollar Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 1983
 Morocco Moroccan dirham Bank Al-Maghrib بنك المغرب 1959
 Mozambique Mozambican metical Bank of Mozambique Banco de Moçambique 1975
 Myanmar Burmese kyat Central Bank of Myanmar မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်ဗဟိုဘဏ် 1948
 Namibia Namibian dollar Bank of Namibia 1990
 Nauru Australian dollar No central bank; uses the Australian dollar as its domestic currency
   Nepal Nepalese rupee Nepal Rastra Bank नेपाल राष्ट्र बैंक 1956
 Netherlands Euro European Central Bank (De Nederlandsche Bank) 1814
 New Caledonia CFP franc Overseas Issuing Institute as part of the CFP Institut d'émission d'outre-mer
 New Zealand New Zealand dollar Reserve Bank of New Zealand Te Pūtea Matua 1934
 Nicaragua Nicaraguan córdoba Central Bank of Nicaragua Banco Central de Nicaragua 1960
 Niger West African CFA franc Central Bank of West African States Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest 1959
 Nigeria Nigerian naira Central Bank of Nigeria Babban Bankin Najeriya /
Ilé Ìfowópamọ́-àgbà tí Nàìjíríà 		1958
 North Macedonia Macedonian denar National Bank of North Macedonia Народна банка на Република Северна Македонија / Banka Kombëtare e Republikës së Maqedonisë së Veriut 1991
 Norway Norwegian krone Norges Bank Noregs Bank / Norgga Báŋku 1816
 Oman Omani rial Central Bank of Oman البنك المركزي العماني 1974
 Pakistan Pakistani rupee State Bank of Pakistan بینک دولت پاکستان 1948
 Palau United States dollar No central bank; uses the United States dollar as its domestic currency
 Palestine* Palestine Monetary Authority سلطة النقد الفلسطينية 1994
 Panama United States dollar No central bank; uses the United States dollar as its domestic currency, and the Panamanian balboa pegged to the U.S. dollar
 Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinean kina Bank of Papua New Guinea Beng bilong Papua Niugini 1973
 Paraguay Paraguayan guaraní Central Bank of Paraguay Banco Central del Paraguay 1952
 Peru Peruvian sol Central Reserve Bank of Peru Banco Central de Reserva del Perú 1922
 Philippines Philippine peso Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas 1949
 Poland Polish złoty National Bank of Poland Narodowy Bank Polski 1945
 French Polynesia CFP franc Overseas Issuing Institute Institut d'émission d'outre-mer
 Portugal Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Portugal) Banco de Portugal 1846
 Qatar Qatari riyal Qatar Central Bank مصرف قطر المركزي 1973
 Romania Romanian leu National Bank of Romania Banca Națională a României 1880
 Russia Russian ruble Central Bank of Russia Центральный банк Российской Федерации 1990
 Rwanda Rwandan franc National Bank of Rwanda Banque Nationale du Rwanda /
Banki Nkuru y'u Rwanda 		1964
 Saint Kitts and Nevis Eastern Caribbean dollar Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 1983
 Saint Lucia Eastern Caribbean dollar Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 1983
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Eastern Caribbean dollar Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 1983
 Samoa Samoan tālā Central Bank of Samoa Faletupe Tutotonu o Sāmoa 1984
 San Marino Euro Central Bank of the Republic of San Marino Banca Centrale della Repubblica di San Marino 2005
 São Tomé and Príncipe São Tomé and Príncipe dobra Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe Banco Central de São Tomé e Príncipe 1975
 Saudi Arabia Saudi riyal Saudi Central Bank البنك المركزي السعودي 1952
 Senegal West African CFA franc Central Bank of West African States Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest 1959
 Serbia Serbian dinar National Bank of Serbia Народна банка Србије / Narodna banka Srbije 1884
 Seychelles Seychellois rupee Central Bank of Seychelles Banque centrale des Seychelles / Labank santral Sesel 1983
 Sierra Leone Sierra Leonean leone Bank of Sierra Leone 1963
 Singapore Singapore dollar Monetary Authority of Singapore 新加坡金融管理局 / Penguasa Kewangan Singapura / சிங்கப்பூர் நாணய ஆணையம் 1971
 Sint Maarten Netherlands Antillean guilder Central Bank of Curaçao and Sint Maarten Centrale bank van Curaçao en Sint Maarten 1828
 Slovakia Euro European Central Bank (National Bank of Slovakia) Národná banka Slovenska 1993
 Slovenia Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Slovenia) Banka Slovenije 1991
 Solomon Islands Solomon Islands dollar Central Bank of Solomon Islands 1983
 Somalia Somali shilling Central Bank of Somalia Bankiga Dhexe ee Soomaaliya /
البنك المركزي الصومالي 		1960
 Somaliland* Somaliland shilling Bank of Somaliland Baanka Somaliland /
البنك المركزي صوماليلاند 		1994
 South Africa South African rand South African Reserve Bank iBhange-ngodla laseNingizimu Afrika / iBhanki enguVimba yoMzantsi Afrika / Suid-Afrikaanse Reserwebank / Banka ya Risefe ya Afrika Borwa / Banka-kgolo ya Aforika Borwa / Banka ya Sesiu ya Afrika Borwa / Banginkulu ya Afrika-Dzonga / liBhangi lesiLulu leNingizimu Afrika / Bannga ya Vhukati ya Afurika Tshipembe / iBulungelo-mali eliKhulu leSewula Afrika 1921
 South Ossetia* National Bank of the Republic of South Ossetia Респуликӕ Хуссар Ирыстоны Националон банк / Национальный банк Республики Южная Осетия 2013
 South Sudan South Sudanese pound Bank of South Sudan 2011
 Spain Euro European Central Bank (Bank of Spain) Banco de España 1782
 Sri Lanka Sri Lankan rupee Central Bank of Sri Lanka ශ්‍රී ලංකා මහ බැංකුව /
இலங்கை மத்திய வங்கி 		1950
 Sudan Sudanese pound Central Bank of Sudan بنك السودان المركزي 1960
 Suriname Surinamese dollar Central Bank of Suriname Centrale Bank van Suriname 1957
 Sweden Swedish krona Sveriges Riksbank 1668
  Switzerland Swiss franc Swiss National Bank Schweizerische Nationalbank / Banque nationale suisse /
Banca nazionale svizzera /
Banca naziunala svizra 		1906
 Syria Syrian pound Central Bank of Syria مصرف سورية المركزي 1953
 Taiwan* New Taiwan dollar Central Bank of the Republic of China (Taiwan) 中華民國中央銀行 1961
 Tajikistan Tajikistani somoni National Bank of Tajikistan Бонки миллии Тоҷикистон / Национальный банк Таджикистана 1991
 Tanzania Tanzanian shilling Bank of Tanzania Benki Kuu ya Tanzania 1965
 Thailand Thai baht Bank of Thailand ธนาคารแห่งประเทศไทย 1942
 Togo West African CFA franc Central Bank of West African States Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest 1959
 Tonga Tongan paʻanga National Reserve Bank of Tonga Pangikē Pule Fakafonua ʻo Tonga 1989
 Transnistria* Transnistrian Republican Bank Банка Републиканэ Нистрянэ / Приднестровский Республиканский Банк / Придністровський Республіканський Банк 1992
 Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago dollar Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago 1964
 Tunisia Tunisian dinar Central Bank of Tunisia البنك المركزي التونسي /
Banque Centrale de Tunisie 		1958
 Turkey Turkish lira Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası 1930
 Turkmenistan Turkmen manat Central Bank of Turkmenistan Türkmenistanyň Merkezi Banky 1991
 Tuvalu Tuvaluan dollar No central bank; uses the Australian dollar as its domestic currency, and the Tuvaluan dollar pegged to the Australian dollar
 Uganda Ugandan shilling Bank of Uganda Benki Kuu ya Uganda 1966
 Ukraine Hryvnia National Bank of Ukraine Національний банк України 1991
 United Arab Emirates Emirati dirham Central Bank of the United Arab Emirates مصرف الإمارات العربية المتحدة المركزي 1980
 United Kingdom Sterling Bank of England 1694
 United States United States dollar Federal Reserve 1913
 Uruguay Uruguayan peso Central Bank of Uruguay Banco Central del Uruguay 1967
 Uzbekistan Uzbekistani soum Central Bank of the Republic of Uzbekistan O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Markaziy Banki / Ўзбекистон Республикаси Марказий Банки 1991
 Vanuatu Vanuatu vatu Reserve Bank of Vanuatu Reserve Bank blong Vanuatu 1981
 Venezuela Venezuelan bolívar Central Bank of Venezuela Banco Central de Venezuela 1939
 Vietnam Vietnamese đồng State Bank of Vietnam Ngân hàng nhà nước Việt Nam 1951
 Wallis and Futuna CFP franc Overseas Issuing Institute as part of the CFP Institut d'émission d'outre-mer
 Yemen Yemeni rial Central Bank of Yemen البنك المركزي اليمني 1971
 Zambia Zambian kwacha Bank of Zambia 1964
 Zimbabwe Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe 1964

Major central banks by currency allocation percentage of worldwide foreign exchange reserves

Source: World Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves, International Monetary Fund[1]

Country name Central bank name Currency Currency share percentage of global allocated reserves in Q4 2022 (%) Central bank governor Native name of central bank Establishment
 United States Federal Reserve United States dollar 58.36 Jerome Powell 1913
 European Union European Central Bank Euro 20.47 Christine Lagarde 1998
 Japan Bank of Japan Japanese yen 5.51 Kazuo Ueda 日本銀行 / Nippon Ginkō 1882
 United Kingdom Bank of England Pound sterling 4.95 Andrew Bailey 1694
 China People's Bank of China Renminbi 2.69 Pan Gongsheng 中国人民銀行 / Zhōngguó Rénmín Yínháng 1948
 Canada Bank of Canada Canadian dollar 2.38 Tiff Macklem Banque du Canada 1935
 Australia Reserve Bank of Australia Australian dollar 1.96 Michele Bullock 1960
  Switzerland Swiss National Bank Swiss franc 0.23 Thomas Jordan Schweizerische Nationalbank / Banque Nationale Suisse / Banca Nazionale Svizzera / Banca Naziunala Svizra 1906

Former central banking jurisdictions

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "Table 1: World Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves". IMF Data. Retrieved 2023-06-28.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Ulrich Bindseil (2019). Central Banking before 1800: A Rehabilitation. Oxford University Press.

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