其中一種理論是由约瑟夫·熊彼特在《資本主義、社會主義與民主》(Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy)一書裡所提出[33],他認為民主制度只不過是一種由人們定期選出政治領導進行統治的制度。依據這種概念,一般的公民沒有能力、也不應該進行「統治」,因為在大多數議題上這些平民都沒有明確的概念、而且也不夠聰明。
^Diamond, L., Lecture at Hilla University for Humanistic Studies 21 January 2004: "What is Democracy" (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆); Diamond, L. and Morlino, L., The quality of democracy (2016). In Diamond, L., In Search of Democracy. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-78128-2.
^Democracy. Oxford University Press. [24 February 2021]. (原始内容存档于2022-11-16).
^Watkins, Frederick. Democracy. Encyclopædia Britannica 7 Expo '70 hardcover. William Benton: 215–23. 1970. ISBN 978-0-85229-135-1(英语).
^Staff writer. Liberty and justice for some. The Economist (Economist Group). 22 August 2007 [2023-08-22]. (原始内容存档于2016-12-28). Democracy can be seen as a set of practices and principles that institutionalise and thus ultimately protect freedom. Even if a consensus on precise definitions has proved elusive, most observers today would agree that, at a minimum, the fundamental features of a democracy include government based on majority rule and the consent of the governed, the existence of free and fair elections, the protection of minorities and respect for basic human rights. Democracy presupposes equality before the law, due process and political pluralism.
^Plant, Raymond. Community and Ideology: An Essay in Applied Social Philosphy. Routledge Revivals reprint. London: Routledge. 10 September 2009: 8 - 9 [1974] [11 August 2023]. ISBN 9781135191474. (原始内容存档于2023-08-11). In 1949 UNESCO sponsored an enquiry into the ideals associated with the concept of democracy [...]. [...] The idea of democracy was considered to be highly ambiguous. (UNESCO, 1951.)
^Dahl, Robert A., Ian Shapiro, José Antônio Cheibub, and Adam Przeworski. “Minimalist Conception of Democracy: A Defense.” Essay. In The Democracy Sourcebook, 12–17. Cambridge, MA, MA: MIT Press, 2003.
^Schmitter, Philippe C. and Terry Lynn Karl. 1991. "What Democracy is.. . and is Not." Journal of Democracy 2 (3): 75-88
^Coppedge, Michael, Angel Alvarez, and Claudia Maldonado. 2008. "Two Persistent Dimensions of Democracy: Contestation and Inclusiveness." The Journal of Politics70 (3): 632-647.
^Piironen, Ossi. 2005. "Minimalist Democracy without Substance? an Evaluation of the Mainstream Measures of Democracy." Politiikka 47 (3): 189-204.
^Fuchs, Dieter; Roller, Edeltraud. Conceptualizing and Measuring the Quality of Democracy: The Citizens' Perspective. Politics and Governance. 2018, 6 (1): 22. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i1.1188.
^Mayne, Quinton; Geißel, Brigitte. Don't Good Democracies Need "Good" Citizens? Citizen Dispositions and the Study of Democratic Quality. Politics and Governance. 2018, 6 (1): 33. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i1.1216.
^Buchanan, James M. & Tullock, Gordon.(1965). The Calculus of consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy. University of Michigan Press. pp.301.
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