在英語中,道德(Morality)一詞由14世紀晚期自「 moral qualities」演變而來[6],起源於拉丁語的“moralis”,這個拉丁語的字面意義包括:禮儀(manners)[6][7]、性格(character)[6]、人在社會中適當的行為(proper behaviour)[7]。從1590年代開始,英語中的道德就有「好的(goodness)」的含義[6],道德與英語中的「正確的(rightness)」可能是道德的同義詞。
西方文化自古希臘以來把道德視為一個獨立分離的單元,為哲學中的倫理學,倫理(Ethics,即為道德哲學)是解決道德問題的哲學分支,「道德」與「倫理」經常被互換使用,有時也狹隘的用於描述特定傳統、群體或個人的道德原則[11]。道德哲學(Moral philosophy)包括道德本體論,研究的是道德的起源;以及道德認識論,研究關於道德的知識。道德的表達,會產生不同的系統,包括遵守一套既定規則的義務倫理系統,以及考慮行動本身是否具有優勢的規範倫理系統。黃金定律是一個規范倫理學的例子,該定律認為應該「待人像他人對待自己(One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself)」[12],即類似積極面的「待人如己」、消極面的「己所不欲,勿施於人」。
自我许可(英語:moral self-licensing, moral licensing, or licensing effect),也称为道德自我许可、道德许可或许可效应,是社会心理学和市场营销中使用的一个术语,用于描述一种潜意识现象,即对一个人的自我形象或自我概念增强的信心和安全感,往往会使那个人较少担心随后的不道德行为的后果; 因此,更有可能做出不道德的选择和不道德的行为。[25][26][27][28][29][30]
Marc Bekoff和Jessica Pierce認為,道德是所有生活在復雜社會群體中的哺乳動物都可能共有的一系列行為能力,像是:狼、土狼、大象、海豚、老鼠、黑猩猩等。他們將道德定義為「一系列相互關聯的行為,用以培養和規範社會群體內的複雜互動。」這套行為包括:同理心、互惠、利他主義、合作和公平感[38]。在相關研究中,黑猩猩被證明能在各種各樣的環境中表現出對同伴的同情[39],他們甚至還具有到社會政治水平的欺騙能力[40],類似於人類的謠言和聲譽管理行為的原型。
一些觀察家認為,個人會根據個人身分認同在對內團體或外團體時而使用不同的道德規則。內團體指的是個人及他認為屬於同一群體的人,外團體是指個人認為非屬內團體的群體。一些生物學家、人類學家和演化心理學家認為這種內/外團體差別待遇的可以提高群體的生存率,這種概念在簡單的進化計算模型中被證實[43]。在模擬中,這種差別待遇可能會導致對內群體的意外合作以及對外團體的非理性敵意[44]。Gary R. Johnson與V.S. Falger認為,民族主義和愛國主義是以這種內/外團體作為邊界的形式存在。Jonathan Haidt指出,實驗觀察表明保守主義的內團體中有一個被實際使用的基礎道德標準,但自由主義者中不太有[45]。
宗教和道德並不是同義詞,道德不依賴於宗教,儘管對某些人來說這是一種「幾乎自動的假設」[53]。根據《西敏斯特基督教倫理詞典(The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Ethics)》指出:宗教和道德有不同的定義,彼此也沒有定義上的關聯;在概念和原則上,道德和宗教價值體系是兩種不同的價值體系與行動指南[54]。不過宗教確實是一種能夠建立道德的強大價值體系或文化體系。
^Gert, Bernard; Gert, Joshua. The Definition of Morality. Zalta, Edward N. (编). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Fall 2017. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017 [2018-09-30]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-15).
^The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy P.586 morality
^Jörg Bergmann "Veiled morality: Notes on discretion in psychiatry." In Drew, Paul; Heritage, John, eds. (1992). Talk at work: Interaction in institutional settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 137–62.
^Lena Jayyusi "Values and moral judgment: Communicative praxis as moral order." In Button, Graham, ed. (1991). Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 227–51.
^Clot S; Grolleau G; Ibanez L. Do Good Deeds Make Bad People?(PDF). INRA-IDEI Seminar; Toulouse, France. December 2011 [2012-08-09]. (原始内容存档(PDF)于2015-02-18).
^Merritt, A., Effron, D., & Monin, B. (2010). "Moral self-licensing: When being good frees us to be bad". Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4/5, 344–57. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-14. Retrieved 2012-08-09.
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