The earliest kingdoms to emerge in Ghana were the Kingdom of Dagbon in the north and the Bono state in the south, with the Bono state existing in the area during the 11th century.[9][10] The Ashanti Empire and other Akan kingdoms in the south emerged over the centuries.[11] Beginning in the 15th century, the Portuguese Empire, followed by other European powers, contested the area for trading rights, until the British ultimately established control of the coast by the 19th century. Following over a century of colonial resistance, the current borders of the country took shape, encompassing four separate British colonial territories: Gold Coast, Ashanti, the Northern Territories, and British Togoland. These were unified as an independent dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations. On 6 March 1957, Ghana became the first colony in Sub-Saharan Africa to achieve sovereignty.[12][13][14] Ghana subsequently became influential in decolonisation efforts and the Pan-African movement.[15]
The earliest recorded kingdoms to emerge in modern Ghana were the Mole-Dagbon states.[21] Before the unification of Dagbon, societies were decentralised, and headed by the Tindaamba (singular: tindana).[22] These decentralised states were unified by King Gbewaa, who lived a long life, and formed a stable, peaceful society.[23] Dagbon extended beyond the boundaries of present-day Ghana.[24][25][26] Kingdoms that emerged from Dagbon include the Mossi Kingdoms of Burkina Faso,[27] and Bouna Kingdom of Ivory Coast.[28] The kingdom enjoyed great prosperity establishing Ghana's earliest educational systems,[29] and using a writing script[30][31] prior to European invasion. Female chiefs who rule over male subjects are present in the kingdom,[32] and inheritance is both patrilineal and matrilineal.[33] The Yaa Naa is the King of Dagbon and the Gundo Naa is the Queen.[34][35] The kingdom remained uncolonised. In 1896, Germany invaded Eastern Dagbon (Naya) and burnt down its capital, Yendi,[36][37] during the Battle of Adibo.[38][39]
The Akan-speaking peoples began to move into what later became Ghana toward the 15th century.[21][40] By the 16th century, the Akans were established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo region was named.[21][41] From the 17th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create Akan states, mainly based on gold trading.[42] These states included Bonoman (Brong-Ahafo region), Ashanti (Ashanti Region), Denkyira (Western North region), Mankessim Kingdom (Central region), and Akwamu(Eastern region).[21] By the 19th century, the territory of the southern part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti.[21] The government of the Ashanti Empire operated first as a loose network and eventually as a centralised kingdom with a specialised bureaucracy centred in the capital city of Kumasi.[21] Prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan people created an economy based on principally gold and gold barcommodities, which were traded with other states in Africa.[21][43]
The Ga-Dangme and Ewe migrated westward from south-western Nigeria. The Ewe - formerly known as Dogbo- migrated from Oyo area with their Gbe-speaking kinsmen (Adja, Fon, Phla/Phera and Ogun/Gun) and in transition, settled at Ketou in Benin Republic, Tado in Togo, Dogbo Nyigbo in Benin Republic and with Nortsie (a walled town in present-day Togo) as their final dispersal point. Their dispersal from Nortsie was necessitated by the high-handed rule of King Agorkorli (Agɔ Akɔli) who was the reigning monarch of the tribe at that time. The Ewe in Ghana speak three principal dialects: Anlo(along the coast),Tongu(along the Volta river) and Ewedome (in the hill country side).The Ga-Dangme occupy the Greater Accra Region and parts of the Eastern Region, while the Ewe are found in the Volta Region as well as the neighbouring Togo, Benin Republic and Nigeria (around Badagry area).
Akan trade with European states began after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century.[44] European contact was by the Portuguese people, who came to the Gold Coast region in the 15th century to trade. The Portuguese then established the Portuguese Gold Coast (Costa do Ouro), focused on the availability of gold.[45] The Portuguese built a trading lodge at a coastal settlement called Anomansah (the perpetual drink) which they renamed São Jorge da Mina.[45] In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo de Azambuja to build the Elmina Castle, which was completed in 3 years.[45] By 1598, the Dutch had joined the Portuguese in the gold trade, establishing the Dutch Gold Coast (Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea - 'Dutch properties at the Guinea coast') and building forts at Fort Komenda and Kormantsi.[46] In 1617, the Dutch captured the Elmina Castle from the Portuguese and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony).[46]
European traders had joined in gold trading by the 17th century, including the Swedes, establishing the Swedish Gold Coast (Svenska Guldkusten), and Denmark–Norway, establishing the Danish Gold Coast (Danske Guldkyst or Dansk Guinea).[47] European traders participated in the Atlantic slave trade in this area.[48] More than 30 forts and castles were built by the merchants. The Germans established the Brandenburger Gold Coast or Groß Friedrichsburg.[49] In 1874, Great Britain established control over some parts of the country, assigning these areas the status of the British Gold Coast.[50] Military engagements occurred between British colonial powers and Akan nation-states. The Kingdom of Ashanti defeated the British some times in the 100-year-long Anglo-Ashanti wars and eventually lost with the War of the Golden Stool in 1900.[51][52][53]
A Gold Coast postage stamp overprinted for Ghanaian independence in 1957
Celebrations marking Ghana's independence on 6 March 1957
In 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention led by "The Big Six" called for "self-government within the shortest possible time" following the 1946 Gold Coast legislative election.[47][54]Kwame Nkrumah, a Ghanaian nationalist who led Ghana from 1957 to 1966 as the country's first prime minister and president, formed the Convention People's Party in 1949 with the motto "self-government now".[47] The party initiated a "positive action" campaign involving non-violent protests, strikes and non-cooperation with the British authorities. Nkrumah was arrested and sentenced to one year imprisonment during this time. In the Gold Coast's 1951 general election, he was elected to Parliament and was released from prison.[47] He became prime minister in 1952 and began a policy of Africanization.[citation needed]
The government of Nkrumah was subsequently overthrown in a coup by the Ghana Armed Forces, codenamed "Operation Cold Chop". This occurred while Nkrumah was abroad with Zhou Enlai in the People's Republic of China, on a fruitless mission to Hanoi, Vietnam, to help end the Vietnam War. The coup took place on 24 February 1966, led by Colonel Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka and Brigadier Akwasi Afrifa. The National Liberation Council was formed, chaired by Lieutenant General Joseph A. Ankrah.[66][67]
After the 2000 general election, John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party became president of Ghana on 7 January 2001 and was re-elected in 2004, thus also serving two terms (the term limit) as president of Ghana and marking the first time under the fourth republic that power was transferred from one legitimately elected head of state and head of government to another.[71]
To combat deforestation, on 11 June 2021 Ghana inaugurated Green Ghana Day, with the aim of planting five million trees in a concentrated effort to preserve the country's rainforest cover.[82]
Ghana is located on the Gulf of Guinea, a few degrees north of the Equator.[83] It spans an area of 239,535 km2 (92,485 sq mi)[84] and has an Atlantic coastline that stretches 560 kilometres (350 miles) on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to its south.[83]Dodi Island and Bobowasi Island are near the south coast.[85] It lies between latitudes 4°45'N and 11°N, and longitudes 1°15'E and 3°15'W. The prime meridian passes through Ghana, specifically through Tema.[83] Ghana is geographically closer to the intersection of the Prime Meridian and the Equator than any other country, since this point, (0°, 0°), is located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 614 km (382 mi) off the south-east coast of Ghana.
The climate of Ghana is tropical, and there is wet season and dry season.[92] Ghana sits at the intersection of 3 hydro-climatic zones.[93] Changes in rainfall, weather conditions and sea-level rise affect the salinity of coastal waters. This is expected to negatively affect both farming and fisheries.[94]
In 2015, the government produced a document titled "Ghana's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution."[95] Following that, Ghana signed the Paris Climate Agreement in 2016.
Nana Akufo-Addo won the presidency in the general election in 2016, defeating incumbent John Mahama. He also won the 2020 election after the presidential election results were challenged at the Supreme Court by flagbearer of the NDC, John Mahama. Presidents are limited to two four-year terms in office. The president can serve a second term only upon re-election.
The 2012 Fragile States Index indicated that Ghana is ranked the 67th-least fragile state in the world and the fifth-least fragile state in Africa. Ghana ranked 112th out of 177 countries on the index.[97] Ghana ranked as the 64th-least corrupt and politically corrupt country in the world out of all 174 countries ranked and ranked as the fifth-least corrupt and politically corrupt country in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index.[98][99] Ghana was ranked seventh in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.[100] According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Ghana is ranked 67th electoral democracy worldwide and 10th electoral democracy in Africa.[101]
Since independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union.[102]
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) were integrated into Ghana's development agenda and the budget. According to reports, the SDGs were implemented through a decentralized planning approach. This allows for stakeholders' participation, such as in UN agencies, traditional leaders, civil society organizations, academia, and others.[111] The 17 SDGs are a global call to action to end poverty among others, and the UN and its partners in the country are working towards achieving them.[112] According to the President Nana Akufo-Addo, Ghana was "the first sub-Saharan African country to achieve the goal of halving poverty, as contained in Goal 1 of the Millennium Development Goals".[113]
The military operations and military doctrine of the GAF are conceptualised in the constitution, Ghana's Law on Armed Force Military Strategy, and Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre agreements to which GAF is attestator.[116][117][118] GAF military operations are executed under the auspices and imperium of the Ministry of Defence.[116][119] Although Ghana is relatively peaceful and is often considered being one of the least violent countries in the region, Ghana has experienced political violence in the past and 2017 has thus far seen an upward trend in incidents motivated by political grievances.[120]
The Ghana Police Service and the Criminal Investigation Department are the main law enforcement agencies, responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security.[121] The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialised police units, including a Militarized policeRapid deployment force and Marine Police Unit.[122][123] The Ghana Police Service operates in 12 divisions: ten covering the regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub of Tema, and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division.[123] The Ghana Police Service's Marine Police Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshore oil and gas industry.[123]
The Ghana Prisons Service and the sub-division Borstal Institute for Juveniles administers incarceration.[124] Ghana retains and exercises the death penalty for treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide.[125][126] The new sustainable development goals adopted by the United Nations call for the international community to come together to promote the rule of law; support equal access to justice for all; reduce corruption; and develop effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels.[127]
Ghana is used as a key narcotics industry transshipment point by traffickers, usually from South America as well as some from other African nations.[128] In 2013, the UN chief of the Office on Drugs and Crime stated that "West Africa is completely weak in terms of border control and the big drug cartels from Colombia and Latin America have chosen Africa as a way to reach Europe."[129] There is not a wide or popular knowledge about the narcotics industry and intercepted narcotics within Ghana, since it is an underground economy. The social context within which narcotic trafficking, storage, transportation, and repacking systems exist in Ghana and the state's location along the Gulf of Guinea makes Ghana an attractive country for the narcotics business.[128][130] The Narcotics Control Board has impounded container ships at the Sekondi Naval Base in the Takoradi Harbour. These ships were carrying thousands of kilograms of cocaine, with a street value running into billions of Ghana cedis. However, drug seizures saw a decline in 2011.[128][130]Drug cartels are using new methods in narcotics production and narcotics exportation, to avoid Ghanaian security agencies.[128][130] Underdeveloped institutions, porous open borders, and the existence of established smuggling organisations contribute to Ghana's position in the narcotics industry.[128][130] President Mills initiated ongoing efforts to reduce the role of airports in Ghana's drug trade.[128]
Homosexual acts are prohibited by law in Ghana.[131] According to a 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 96% of Ghanaians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[132] Sometimes elderly women in Ghana are accused of witchcraft, particularly in rural Ghana. Issues of witchcraft mainly remain as speculations based on superstitions within families. In some parts of northern Ghana, there exist what are called witch camps. These are said to house a total of around 1,000 people accused of witchcraft.[133] The Ghanaian government has announced that it intends to close the camps.[133]
Ghana's economy has ties to the Chinese yuan renminbi along with Ghana's vast gold reserves. In 2013, the Bank of Ghana began circulating the renminbi throughout Ghanaian state-owned banks and to the Ghana public as hard currency along with the national Ghanaian cedi for second national trade currency.[136]
Between 2012 and 2013, 38% of rural dwellers were experiencing poverty whereas only 11% of urban dwellers were.[137] Urban areas hold greater opportunity for employment, particularly in informal trade, while nearly all (94 percent) of "rural poor households" participate in the agricultural sector.[138]
It announced plans to issue government debt by way of social and green bonds in Autumn 2021, making it the first African country to do so.[151][152] The country, which was planning to borrow up to $5 billion in international markets,[when?] would use the proceeds from these sustainable bonds to refinance debt used for social and environmental projects and pay for educational or health. Only a few other nations have sold them so far, including Chile and Ecuador. The country will use the proceeds to forge ahead with a free secondary-school initiative started in 2017 among other programs, despite having recorded its lowest economic growth rate in 37 years in 2020.[153]
It produces and exports hydrocarbons such as sweet crude oil and natural gas.[154][155] The 100%-state-owned filling station company, Ghana Oil Company, is the number 1 petroleum and gas filling station, and the 100%-state-owned state oil company Ghana National Petroleum Corporation oversees hydrocarbon exploration and production of petroleum and natural gas reserves. Ghana aims to further increase the output of oil to 2.2 million barrels (350,000 m3) per day and gas to 34,000,000 cubic metres (1.2×10^9 cu ft) per day.[156] The Jubilee Oil Field, which contains up to 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m3) of sweet crude oil, was discovered in 2007.[157] Ghana is believed to have up to 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m3) to 7 billion barrels (1.1×109 m3) of petroleum in reserves,[158] which is the fifth-largest in Africa and the 21st-to-25th-largest proven reserves in the world. It also has up to 1.7×1011 cubic metres (6×10^12 cu ft) of natural gas in reserves.[159] The government has drawn up plans to nationalise petroleum and natural gas reserves to increase government revenue.[160]
As of 2019, Ghana was the 7th largest producer of gold in the world, producing ~140 tonnes that year.[161] This record saw Ghana surpass South Africa in output for the first time, making Ghana the largest gold producer in Africa.[162] In addition to gold, Ghana exports silver, timber, diamonds, bauxite, and manganese, and has other mineral deposits.[163] Ghana ranks 9th in the world in diamond export and reserve size.[164] The government has drawn up plans to nationalize mining industry to increase government revenue.[165][166]
"Shortages" of electricity in 2015 and 2016 led to dumsor ("persistent, irregular and unpredictable" electric power outages),[167] increasing the interest in renewables.[168] As of 2019, there is a surplus of electricity.[169]
The judicial system of Ghana deals with corruption, economic malpractice and lack of economic transparency.[170] According to Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index of 2018, out of 180 countries, Ghana was ranked 78th, with a score of 41 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean. This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption.[171]
Ghana launched a cellular mobile network in 1992. It was later connected to the Internet and introduced ADSL broadband services.[172] It was ranked 99th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[173][174]
In 2011, 1,087,000 tourists visited Ghana.[177] Tourist arrivals include South Americans, Asians, Europeans, and North Americans.[178] The attractions and tourist destinations include waterfalls such as Kintampo waterfalls and the largest waterfall in west Africa, Wli waterfalls, the coastal palm-lined sandy beaches, caves, mountains, rivers, and reservoirs and lakes such as Lake Bosumtwi and the largest human-made lake in the world by surface area, Lake Volta, dozens of forts and castles, World Heritage Sites, nature reserves and national parks.[178] Some castles are Cape Coast Castle and the Elmina Castle.[179] Castles mark where blood was shed in the slave trade and preserve and promote the African heritage stolen and destroyed through the slave trade.[180] As a result of this, the World Heritage Convention of UNESCO named Ghana's castles and forts as World Heritage Monuments.[180]
The World Economic Forum statistics in 2010 showed that out of the world's favourite tourist destinations, Ghana was ranked 108th out of 139 countries.[181] The country had moved two places up from the 2009 rankings. In 2011, Forbes magazine published that Ghana was ranked the eleventh most friendly country in the world. The assertion was based on a survey in 2010 of a cross-section of travellers. Of all the African countries that were included in the survey, Ghana ranked highest.[181] Tourism is the fourth highest earner of foreign exchange for the country.[181] In 2017, Ghana ranked as the 43rd–most peaceful country in the world.[182]
Up and down the coastline, surfing spots have been identified and cultivated by locals and internationals. Surfers have made trips to the country to sample the waves. Surfers carried their boards amid traditional fishing vessels.[183]
According to Destination Pride[184]—a data-driven search platform used to visualize the world's LGBTQ+ laws, rights and social sentiment—Ghana's Pride score is 22 (out of 100).[185]
As of 2019, Ghana has a population of 30,083,000.[186] Around 29% of the population is under the age of 15, while persons aged 15–64 make up 57.8 percent of the population.[187] The 2010 census reported that the largest ethnic groups are the Akan (47.3%), the Mole-Dagbani (16.6%), the Ewe (13.9%), the Ga-Dangme (7.4%), the Gurma (5.7%) and the Guan (3.7%).[188]
The median age of Ghanaian citizens is 30 years old and the average household size is 3.6 persons.
With recent legal immigration of skilled workers who possess Ghana Cards, there is a small population of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern and European nationals. In 2010, the Ghana Immigration Service reported many economic migrants and Illegal immigrants inhabiting Ghana: 14.6% (or 3.1 million) of Ghana's 2010 population (predominantly Nigerians, Burkinabe citizens, Togolese citizens, and Malian citizens). In 1969, under the "Ghana Aliens Compliance Order" enacted by Prime Minister Kofi Abrefa Busia,[189] the Border Guard Unit deported over 3,000,000 aliens and illegal immigrants in three months as they made up 20% of the population at the time.[189][190][191] In 2013, there was a mass deportation of illegal miners; over 4,000 of which were Chinese nationals.[192][193]
Of these, Asante Twi is the most widely spoken.[198]
Because Ghana is surrounded by French-speaking countries, French is widely taught in schools and used for commercial and international economic exchanges. Since 2006, Ghana has been an associate member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie,[199] the global organisation that unites French-speaking countries (84 nations on six continents). In 2005, more than 350,000 Ghanaian children studied French in schools. Since then, its status has been progressively updated to a mandatory language in every junior high school,[200] and it is in the process of becoming an official language.[201][202]
Ghanaian Pidgin English, also known as Kru English (or in Akan, kroo brofo), is a variety of West African Pidgin English spoken in Accra and in the southern towns.[203] It can be divided into two varieties, referred to as "uneducated" or "non-institutionalized" pidgin and "educated" or "institutionalized" pidgin, the former associated with uneducated or illiterate people and the latter acquired and used in institutions such as universities.[204]
Christianity is the largest religion in Ghana, with 71.3% of the population being members of various Christian denominations as of the 2021 census.[205]Islam is practised by 20% of the total population. According to a 2012 report by Pew Research, 51% of Muslims are followers of Sunni Islam, while approximately 16% belong to the Ahmadiyya movement and around 8% identify with Shia Islam, while the remainder are non-denominational Muslims.[206][207] There is "no significant link between ethnicity and religion in Ghana".[208]
Ghana has a universal health care system strictly designated for Ghanaian nationals, National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), is designated for Ghanaian nationals.[209] Health care is variable throughout Ghana and in 2012, over 12 million Ghanaian nationals were covered by the NHIS.[210] Urban centres are well served and contain most of the hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies. There are over 200 hospitals, and Ghana is a destination for medical tourism.[211] In 2010, there were 0.1 physicians per 1,000 people and as of 2011[update], 0.9 hospital beds per 1,000 people.[187] In 2010, 5.2% of Ghana's GDP was spent on health.[212] In 2020, the WHO announced Ghana became the second country in the WHO African Region to attain regulatory system "maturity level 3", the second-highest in the four-tiered WHO classification of National medicines regulatory systems.[213]
Life expectancy at birth in 2020 was 71 for a female and 65 for a male.[214] In 2013, infant mortality was to 39 per 1,000 live births.[215] Sources vary on life expectancy at birth; the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated 62 years for men and 64 years for women born in 2016.[216] The fertility rate declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in urban region and 3.94 in rural region.[188] The United Nations reports a fertility decline from 6.95 (1970) to 4.82 (2000) to 3.93 live births per woman in 2017.[217]
As of 2012[update], the HIV/AIDS prevalence was estimated at 1.40% among adults aged 15–49.[218]
The education system is divided into three parts: basic education, secondary cycle, and tertiary education. "Basic education" lasts 11 years (ages 4‒15).[219] It is divided into kindergarten (two years), primary school (two modules of three years) and junior high (three years). Junior high school ends with the Basic Education Certificate Examination.[219][220] Once certified, the pupil can proceed to the secondary cycle.[221] Hence, the pupil has the choice between general education (offered by the senior high school) and vocational education (offered by the technical senior high school or the technical and vocational institutes). Senior high school lasts 3 years and leads to the West African Senior School Certificate Examination, which is a prerequisite for enrollment in a university bachelor's degree programme.[222]: 7 Polytechnics are open to vocational students.[223]
There are over 95% of children in school.[226][227] The female and male ages 15–24 years literacy rate was 81% in 2010, with males at 82%,[228] and females at 80%.[229] A education system annually attracts foreign students particularly in the university sector.[230][231]
Ghana has a free education six-year primary school education system beginning at age 6.[232] The government largely funds basic education comprising public primary schools and public junior high schools. Senior high schools were subsidised by the government until September 2017/2018 academic year that senior high education became free.[233] At the higher education level, the government funds more than 80% of resources provided to public universities, polytechnics and teacher training colleges. As part of the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education, Fcube, the government supplies all basic education schools with all their textbooks and other educational supplies, like exercise books. Senior high schools are provided with all their textbook requirements by the government. Private schools acquire their educational material from private suppliers.[234]
Ghanaian cuisine includes an assortment of soups and stews with varied seafoods; most Ghanaian soups are prepared with vegetables, meat, poultry or fish.[235] Fish is important in the diet with tilapia, roasted and fried whitebait, smoked fish and crayfish, all being common components of Ghanaian dishes.[235]Banku (akple) is a common starchy food made from ground corn (maize),[235] and cornmeal based staples kɔmi (kenkey) and banku (akple) are usually accompanied by some form of fried fish (chinam) or grilled tilapia and a very spicy condiment made from raw red and green chillies, onions and tomatoes (pepper sauce).[235] Banku and tilapia is a combo served in most restaurants.[235]Fufu is the most common exported Ghanaian dish and is a delicacy across the African diaspora.[235] Rice is an established staple meal across the country, with various rice based dishes serving as breakfast, lunch and dinner, the main variants are waakye, plain rice and stew (eight kontomire or tomato gravy), fried rice and jollof rice.[236]
Ghanaian literature is literature produced by authors from Ghana or in the Ghanaian diaspora. The tradition of literature starts with a long oral tradition, was influence heavily by western literature during colonial rule, and became prominent with a post-colonial nationalist tradition in the mid 20th century.[237][238][239] The current literary community continues with a diverse network of voices both within and outside the country today, including film, theatre, and modern digital formats such as blogging.[238][239]
The Ghanaian national literature radio programme and accompanying publication Voices of Ghana (1955-1957) was one of the earliest on the African continent, and helped establish the scope of the contemporary literary tradition in Ghana.[241] Scholarship of Anglo-phone Africa sometimes favors literatures from other geographies, such as the literature of Nigeria.[242]
Clothing
During the 13th century, Ghanaians developed their unique art of adinkra printing. Hand-printed and hand-embroidered adinkra clothes were made and used exclusively by royalty for devotional ceremonies. Each of the motifs that make up the corpus of adinkra symbolism has a name and meaning derived from a proverb, a historical event, human attitude, ethology, plant life-form, or shapes of inanimate and man-made objects. The meanings of the motifs may be categorised into aesthetics, ethics, human relations, and concepts.[243] The Adinkra symbols have a decorative function as tattoos but also represent objects that encapsulate evocative messages that convey traditional wisdom, aspects of life, or the environment. There are many symbols with distinct meanings, often linked with proverbs. In the words of Anthony Appiah, they were one of the means in a pre-literate society for "supporting the transmission of a complex and nuanced body of practice and belief".[244]
Along with the adinkra cloth, Ghanaians use many cloth fabrics for their traditional attire.[245] The different ethnic groups have their own individual cloth. The most well known is the Kente cloth.[245] Kente is a very important national costume and clothing, and these clothes are used to make traditional and modern Kente attire.[245] Different symbols and different colours mean different things.[245]Kente is the most famous of all the Ghanaian clothes.[245] Kente is a ceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom and strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths.[245] Cloths come in various colours, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions.[245] In a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth as it is a visual representation of history and also a form of written language through weaving.[245] The term kente has its roots in the Akan word kɛntɛn which means a basket and the first kente weavers used raffia fibres to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to as kenten ntoma; meaning basket cloth.[245] The original Akan name of the cloth was nsaduaso or nwontoma, meaning "a cloth hand-woven on a loom"; however, "kente" is the most frequently used term today.
Kente is also woven by the Ewe people (Ewe Kente) in the Volta Region. The main weaving centres are Agortime area and Agbozume. Agbozume has a vibrant kente market attracting patrons from all over west Africa and the diaspora.[245]
Contemporary Ghanaian men's fashion with Kente and other traditional styles
Contemporary Ghanaian women's fashion with African print/Ankara and other fabrics
Contemporary Ghanaian fashion includes traditional and modern styles and fabrics and has made its way into the African and global fashion scene. The cloth known as African print fabric was created out of Dutch wax textiles. It is believed that in the late 19th century, Dutch ships on their way to Asia stocked with machine-made textiles that mimicked Indonesian batik stopped at many West African ports on the way. The fabrics did not do well in Asia. However, in West Africa—mainly Ghana where there was an already established market for cloths and textiles—the client base grew and it was changed to include local and traditional designs, colours and patterns to cater to the taste of the new consumers.[246] Today outside of Africa it is called "Ankara," and it has a client base well beyond Ghana and Africa as a whole. It is popular among Caribbean peoples and African Americans; celebrities such as Solange Knowles and her sister Beyoncé have been seen wearing African print attire.[247] Many designers from countries in North America and Europe are now using African prints, and they have gained a global interest.[248] British luxury fashion house Burberry created a collection around Ghanaian styles.[249] American musician Gwen Stefani has repeatedly incorporated African prints into her clothing line and can often be seen wearing it.[250] Internationally acclaimed Ghanaian-British designer Ozwald Boateng introduced African print suits in his 2012 collection.[251]
Music incorporates types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, Akan Drum, goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan Seperewa, the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music.[252] African jazz was created by Kofi Ghanaba.[253] A form of secular music is highlife.[252] Highlife originated in the 19th and 20th centuries and spread throughout West Africa.[252]
In the 1990s, a genre of music was created incorporating the influences of highlife, Afro-reggae, dancehall and hip hop.[252] This hybrid was called hiplife.[252]
Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship.[256] Post-independence, private outlets closed during the military governments, and media laws prevented criticism of government.[257] Press freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of Kufuor, the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor supported press freedom and repealed a libel law, and maintained that the media had to act responsibly.[258] The media have been described as "one of the most unfettered" in Africa.[259]
In 1948, the Gold Coast Film Unit was set up in the Information Services Department.[260]
There are two types of construction: the series of adjacent buildings in an enclosure around a common, and the round huts with grass roof.[261] The round huts with grass roof architecture are situated in the northern regions, while the series of adjacent buildings are in the southern regions. Postmodern architecture and high-tech architecture buildings are in the southern regions, while heritage sites are evident in the more than 30 forts and castles in the country, such as Fort William and Fort Amsterdam. Ghana has museums that are situated inside castles, and two are situated inside a fort.[262] The Military Museum and the National Museum organise temporary exhibitions.[262]
Ghana has museums that show an in-depth look at specific regions. There are a number of museums that provide insight into the traditions and history of the geographical areas.[262] The Cape Coast Castle Museum and St. Georges Castle (Elmina Castle) Museum offer guided tours. The Museum of Science and Technology provides its visitors with a look into the domain of scientific development, through exhibits of objects of scientific and technological interest.[262]
Ghana competes in the Commonwealth Games, sending athletes in every edition since 1954 (except for the 1986 games). Ghana has won 57 medals at the Commonwealth Games, including 15 gold, with all but one of their medals coming in athletics and boxing. The country has also produced a number of boxers, including Azumah Nelson a three-time world champion,[265][266]Nana Yaw Konadu also a three-time world champion,[266]Ike Quartey,[266] and Joshua Clottey.[266]
Ghana Month
Ghana month is celebrated in March, a month significantly representing independence of Ghana and its historical trajectories. March is mainly for the celebration, showcasing and reflection of Ghana's history, culture, traditions, achievements, music, food etc. During this period, Ghanaian media houses showcase rich Ghanaian culture and tradition, fashion, heritage, tourism and many more on the media space, as well as educating others on Ghana's history. It is also to celebrate pan-Africanism and its pioneers.[267]
^"Language and Religion". Ghana Embassy. Archived from the original on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017. English is the official language of Ghana and is universally used in schools in addition to nine other local languages. The most widely spoken local languages are Dagbanli, Ewe, Ga and Twi.
^Emmer, Pieter C. (2018). The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580–1880: Trade, Slavery, and Emancipation (Variorum Collected Studies). Variorum Collected Studies (Book 614) (1st ed.). Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. p. 17. ISBN978-0-86078-697-9.
^Gyimah-Boadi, Emmanuel, "The 2008 Freedom House Survey: Another Step Forward for Ghana." Journal of Democracy 20.2 (2009): 138–152 excerpt. Archived 18 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
^"CDC in Ghana"(PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. August 2019. Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
^"Ghana". Amadeus (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2013.
^Appiah, Kwame Anthony (1993). In my father's house : Africa in the philosophy of culture (1.paperbackedition 1993. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-506852-8.
Kuada, John, and Chachah Yao, Ghana. Understanding the People and their Culture (Woeli Publishing Services, 1999)
Miescher, Stephan F, Making Men in Ghana (Indiana University Press, 2005)
Milne, June, Kwame Nkrumah, A Biography (Panaf Books, 2006)
Nkrumah, Kwame, Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (International Publishers, 1971)
Utley, Ian, Ghana – Culture Smart!: the essential guide to customs & culture (Kuperard, 2009)
Various, Ghana: An African Portrait Revisited (Peter E. Randall Publisher, 2007)
Younge, Paschal Yao, Music and Dance Traditions of Ghana: History, Performance and Teaching (Mcfarland & Co Inc., 2011)
Burke, Laura; Armando García Schmidt (2013). Ghana: Staying on Track in a Challenging Environment. Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh. pp. 127–147. ISBN978-3-86793-491-6.
Ghana Economy of Ghana Ghana–United States relations Eye care in Ghana Dominion of Ghana Ghana Empire Football in Ghana Sports in Ghana Women in Ghana Biodiversity of Ghana Public holidays in Ghana Vice-President of Ghana Ghana Music Awards Germany–Ghana relations Denmark–Ghana relations Agriculture in Ghana Ghana Rugby Association Transport in Ghana Government of Ghana Vodafone Ghana Ghana–Israel relations Foreign relations of Ghana National Theatre of Ghana Ghana Army University of Ghana Telecommunications in Ghana Geography of Ghana Ghana–India relations Islam in Ghana Cybercrime …
in Ghana Manufacturing in Ghana Electricity sector in Ghana Outline of Ghana Ghana–Mexico relations Corruption in Ghana Ghana Badminton God Bless Our Homeland Ghana Christianity in Ghana President of Ghana LGBT rights in Ghana Ghana Armed Forces China–Ghana relations Prime Minister of Ghana United Television Ghana Mass media in Ghana Prostitution in Ghana Ghana–Ivory Coast relations Ghana–Togo border COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana Burkina Faso–Ghana relations Ghana–Iran relations Bank of Ghana Demographics of Ghana Ghana at the Olympics Forestry in Ghana Rail transport in Ghana Għana (folk music) Religion in Ghana First Lady of Ghana Ghana–Spain relations Judiciary of Ghana Ghana Railway Company Limited African Americans in Ghana Ghana–North Korea relations Ghana Navy Ghana International Airlines Education in Ghana Politics of Ghana Cannabis in Ghana History of Ghana Northern Region (Ghana) National Pledge Of Ghana Bangladesh–Ghana relations Year of Return, Ghana 2019 Oil reserves in Ghana Human rights in Ghana Ghana national football team List of heads of state of Ghana Healthcare in Ghana Mining industry of Ghana Districts of Ghana History of the Jews in Ghana Ghan