The sovereign state's northern borders reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert. The country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, is in the Sudanian savanna and has the Niger and Senegal rivers running through it. The country's economy centres on agriculture and mining with its most prominent natural resources including gold (of which it is the third largest producer in Africa)[18] and salt.[19]
Mali was part of three successive powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: the Ghana Empire (for which Ghana is named), the Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire. At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa[20] with its 14th-century emperor Mansa Musa believed to be one of the wealthiest individuals in history.[21][22][23] Besides being a hub of trade and mining, medieval Mali was a centre of Islam, culture and knowledge, with Timbuktu becoming a renowned place of learning with its university, one of the oldest in the world and still active. The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468,[not verified in body] followed by a Saadian army which defeated the Songhai in 1591. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan; as the Sudanese Republic, a brief federation with Senegal was formed, achieving independence in 1960. After Senegal's withdrawal, the Republic of Mali was established. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state.
In January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali, in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north, and in April declared the secession of a new state, Azawad.[24] The conflict was complicated by a military coup in March 2012[25] and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions. In response to territorial gains, the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013.[26] A month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north, although the conflict continued. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second-round run-off held on 11 August, and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013. In the early 2020s, Mali experienced two military takeovers by Assimi Goïta.
Etymology
The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire. It means "the place where the king lives"[27] and carries a connotation of strength.[28]
Fourteenth-century Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the empire was called Mali.[29][30] One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into a hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it was possible to find villages in the area of this river called "old Mali". A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that Mali could have formerly been the name of a city.[31]
Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples.[32][33] It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/ and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to /mali/.[31]
The extent of the Mali Empire's peakThe pages above are from Timbuktu Manuscripts written in Sudani script (a form of Arabic) from the Mali Empire showing established knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Today there are close to a million of these manuscripts found in Timbuktu alone.
The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of the independent invention of pottery in the region.[34] Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used by around 500 BC.
In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people, along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC,[35] and Djenne-Djenno, which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. By the sixth century AD, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires.
There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in the work of al-Bakri in 1068,[36] the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana,[37] and a few geographical details in the work of al-Idrisi.[38]
Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337.[39] These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities.[39] The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people.[39] The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids.[40]
The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century.[40] Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning.[40] The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire.[40] The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule.[40]
In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire.[40] The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of the Moroccan invasion of 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha.[40] The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads.[40] Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance.[40] At that time, the Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold.
One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu."[41]
Cotton being processed in Niono into 180 kg (400 lb) bales for export to other parts of Africa and to France, c. 1950
Mali fell under the control of France during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century.[40] By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan.[40]
In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso.[42] The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops.[43]
On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within the French Community.[44] In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation.[44]
Independence
The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960.[40] Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day.[45]
Modibo Keïta was elected the first president.[40] He quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources.[40] In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million.[46] On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré,[47] a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day.[48]
Moussa Traoré regime
The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought from 1968 to 1974,[47] in which famine killed thousands of people.[49] The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.[47]
WWI Commemorative Monument to the "Armée Noire"
Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied.[47] In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization in the late 1980s, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.[47]
In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during the drought.[47] Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants.[50] Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent.[50]
From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les évenements ("the events") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies.[51]
26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed.[52][53] The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991.[54]
By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré.
Multi-party democracy
Opposition parties were legalized, a transitional government was formed and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum.[51][47] In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for a second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002.[55] During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa.[56]
Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to a master.[57] In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012, ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters.[58]
On 11 January 2013, the French Armed Forcesintervened at the request of the interim government of president Dioncounda Traoré. On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals.[65] On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Dioncounda Traoré in a public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu.[66]
Map showing the fullest extent of rebel-held territory in January 2013
In the central Mali province of Mopti, conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara, and the pastoralFula (or Fulani) people.[68][69] Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as the Fula move into new areas.[70] The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed "self-defense groups"[69] to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda.[69] While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends".[69]
Added a top Mali military commander:
I’ve discussed the growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover.[69]
The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under the guise of being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict.[71] The government denies this.[71] One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou, created in 2016.[69]
Modibo Sidibe voting in Bamako, 2018 Malian presidential election
In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali".[75] However, the group has been blamed for the 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers.[76] The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband.[77] The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng, warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict.[78] By 2020, more than 600,000 people had been displaced by the conflict in Mali.[79] The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in the conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti. It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children.[80]
During the first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in the towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso.[81] President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he does not think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us".[82] On 1 November 2019, the IS-GS militants killed at least 50 soldiers in the 2019 Indelimane attack in the Ménaka Region of Mali.[83] In February 2020, Human Rights Watch documented atrocities against civilians in Central Mali and said that at least 456 civilians were killed, while hundreds were injured from January 2019 until November.[84]
Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in the March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé.[85][86] Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June.[87] In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court.
Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati, Koulikoro Region, began a mutiny on 18 August 2020.[87] President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed.[87] Wagué announced the formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet.[87] The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded that Keïta be reinstated as president.[88]
On 12 September 2020, the CNSP agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020. On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement.[89]
Tensions between the civilian transitional government and the military ran high after the handover of power in September 2020. The tensions came to a head on 24 May 2021 after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration.[90] Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré, were being detained in a military base in Kati, outside Bamako.[91] On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president.[92]
Military situation in Mali. For a detailed map, see here.
In 2022 and 2023, the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara saw major gains in the Mali War, occupying large swathes of territory in southeastern Mali. Ansongo and Tidermène were also captured by the group.[93] By mid-2023, the militant group had doubled the amount of territory it controlled since the overthrow of the previous government and establishment of the junta.[94]
On 10 January 2022, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years.[95] On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled.[96] According to Human Rights Watch, Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from the Wagner Group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had started withdrawing French troops from Mali in February 2022, commencing the end of Operation Barkhane.[97] On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian–French relations.[98] This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate".[99] A UN panel reported that in the first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year.[100]
Sergey Lavrov, the Russian foreign minister, visited Bamako on 7 February 2023 and said that Moscow would continue to help Mali improve its military capabilities.[101]
In June 2023, Mali removed French, the language of its former colonizer, as an official language with the approval of a new constitution by 97% of voters in a referendum conducted by the junta.[102]
On 7 September 2023, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked a vessel on the Niger River, killing at least 154 civilians.[103]
In July 2024, CSP-DPA rebels and JNIM militants killed dozens of Russian mercenaries and Malian government forces during the Battle of Tinzaouaten.[104] On 5 August 2024 the Republic of Mali announced that it was severing diplomatic relations with Ukraine.[105][106]
On 17 September 2024, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked several locations across Bamako, killing at least 77 people and injuring 255 others.[107]
Mali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country.[110] Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent.[110] Late April to early October is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta.[110] The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classificationBWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The southern areas have a tropical wet and dry climate. (Köppen climate classification Aw) In review, Mali's climate is tropical, with March to May being the hot, dry season. June to October is rainy, humid and mild. November to February is the cool, dry season.
Mali has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt and limestone being most widely exploited. Mali is estimated to have in excess of 17,400 tonnes of uranium (measured + indicated + inferred).[111][112] In 2012, a further uranium mineralized north zone was identified.[113] Mali faces numerous environmental challenges, including desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, and inadequate supplies of potable water.[110]
Until the military coup of 22 March 2012,[25][116] Mali was a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992, which was amended in 1999.[117] The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.[117] The system of government can be described as "semi-presidential".[117] Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms.[117][118]
The president serves as a chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces.[117][119] A prime minister appointed by the president serves as head of government and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers.[117][120] The unicameral National Assembly is Mali's sole legislative body, consisting of deputies elected to five-year terms.[121][122] Following the 2007 elections, the Alliance for Democracy and Progress held 113 of 160 seats in the assembly.[123] The assembly holds two regular sessions each year, during which it debates and votes on legislation that has been submitted by a member or by the government.[121][124]
Mali's constitution provides for an independent judiciary,[121][125] but the executive continues to exercise influence over the judiciary by virtue of power to appoint judges and oversee both judicial functions and law enforcement.[121] Mali's highest courts are the Supreme Court, which has both judicial and administrative powers, and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter.[121][126] Various lower courts exist, though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas.[121]
The transition government pushed back the timetable for a new election, initially to be held in February 2022, to February 2024.[127] In exchange for the government's commitment to a 2024 election, ECOWAS agreed to lift sanctions on the country.[128]
Former President of Mali Amadou Toumani Touré and Minister-president of the Netherlands Mark RutteRepresentatives of Mali and Russia at the 2nd International Parliamentary Conference “Russia-Africa” in Moscow, 19 March 2023
Until 2012, Mali's foreign policy orientation had become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time.[129] Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly.[129] Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France, a former colonial ruler.[129] Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d'état.[129][130]
Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals.[129] Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy.[129] General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.[129]
In early 2019, Al Qaeda claimed responsibility for an attack on a United Nations base in Mali that killed 10 peacekeepers from Chad. 25 people were reported to have been injured in the attack. Al Qaeda's stated reason for the attack was Chad's re-establishing diplomatic ties with Israel. The base was attacked in Anguelhok, a village located in an especially unstable region of the country.[129][131]
Mali's military forces consist of an army, which includes land forces and air force,[132] as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard, all of which are under the control of Mali's Ministry of Defense and Veterans, headed by a civilian.
Regions of Mali since 2023A clickable map of Mali exhibiting its eight regions and capital district.
Since 2016, Mali has been divided into ten regions and the District of Bamako.[133] Each region has a governor.[134] The implementation of the two newest regions, Taoudénit (formerly part of Tombouctou Region) and Ménaka (formerly Ménaka Cercle in Gao Region), has been ongoing since January 2016;[135][136] a governor and transitional council has been appointed for both regions.[137]
Since 2023, Mali has added nine new regions to its administrative structure, bringing the total to 19 regions plus the district of Bamako. This reorganization aims to improve governance and bring public services closer to local populations. This initiative continues the decentralization efforts that began with the creation of the Taoudénit and Ménaka regions in 2016. The nineteen regions in turn are subdivided into 159 cercles and 815communes.[138][139]
Mali underwent economic reform, beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.[142] During 1988 to 1996, Mali's government largely reformed public enterprises. Since the agreement, sixteen enterprises were privatized, 12 partially privatized, and 20 liquidated.[142] In 2005, the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation.[142] Two major companies, Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT), were expected to be privatized in 2008.[142]
Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances[vague]. The programme increased social and economic conditions[vague], and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995.[143]
Mali is a part of the "Franc Zone" (Zone Franc), which means that it uses the CFA franc. Mali is connected with the French government by agreement since 1962 (creation of BCEAO). Today all seven countries of BCEAO (including Mali) are connected to French Central Bank.[146]
Mali's key industry is agriculture. Cotton is the country's largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and Ivory Coast.[148][149] During 2002, 620,000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003.[148][149] In addition to cotton, Mali produces rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops. Gold, livestock, and agriculture amount to 80% of Mali's exports.[142]
Eighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture. 15% of Malian workers are employed in the service sector.[149] Seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers.[150]
Mining
In 1991, with the assistance of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry.[151] Gold is mined in the southern region and Mali has the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana).[148]
The emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Ivory Coast crises.[152] Other natural resources include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.[142]
Electricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali, or EDM, and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA.[142] Mali has made efficient use of hydroelectricity, consisting of over half of Mali's electrical power. In 2002, 700 GWh of hydroelectric power were produced in Mali.[149]
Energie du Mali is an electric company that provides electricity to Mali citizens. Only 55 percent of the population in cities have access to EDM.[153]
In Mali, there is a railway that connects to bordering countries. There are also approximately 29 airports, of which 8 have paved runways.[154] Urban areas are known for their large quantity of green and white taxicabs. A significant sum of the population is dependent on public transportation.
In 2021, Mali's population was an estimated 21.9 million[15][16]. Mali's population grew from 7.7 million in 1982 to 19.9 million in 2018.[155] The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5%–10% of Malians are nomadic.[5] More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 2 million residents.[5]
In 2007, about 48% of Malians were younger than 12 years old, 49% were 15–64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older.[132] The median age was 15.9 years.[132] The birth rate in 2014 was 45.53 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate (in 2012) was 6.4 children per woman.[132][156] The death rate in 2007 was 16.5 deaths per 1,000.[132]Life expectancy at birth was 53.06 years total (51.43 for males and 54.73 for females).[132] Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality,[5] with 106 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2007.[132]
In the far north, there is a division between Berber-descended Tuareg nomad populations and the darker-skinned Bella or Tamasheq people, due to the historical spread of slavery in the region. An estimated 800,000 people in Mali are descended from slaves.[57]Slavery has persisted in Mali for centuries.[159] The Arabic population kept slaves well into the 20th century, until slavery was suppressed by French authorities around the mid-20th century. There still persist certain hereditary servitude relationships,[160][161] and according to some estimates, even today approximately 200,000 Malians are still enslaved.[162]
Some mixed European/African descendants of Muslims of Spanish, as well as French, Irish, Italian and Portuguese origin, live in Mali, where they are known as the Arma people (1% of the nation's population).[163]
Although Mali has enjoyed reasonably good inter-ethnic relationships based on a long history of coexistence, some hereditary servitude and bondage relationship exist, as well as ethnic tension between settled Songhai and nomadic Tuaregs of the north.[5] Due to a backlash against the northern population after independence, Mali is now in a situation where both groups complain about discrimination on the part of the other group.[164] This conflict also plays a role in the continuing Northern Mali conflict where there is a tension between both Tuaregs and the Malian government, and the Tuaregs and radical Islamists who are trying to establish sharia law.[165]
Islam was introduced to West Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in much of the region. An estimated 90% of Malians are Muslim (mostly Sunni[170]), approximately 5% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant) and the remaining 5% adhere to traditional African religions such as the Dogon religion.[169]Atheism and agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practice their religion daily.[171]
Islam as historically practiced in Mali has been malleable and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths have generally been amicable.[171]
After the 2012 imposition of sharia rule in northern parts of the country, however, Mali came to be listed high (number 7) in the Christian persecution index published by Open Doors, which described the persecution in the north as severe.[172][173]
Public education in Mali is in principle provided free of charge and is compulsory for nine years between the ages of seven and sixteen.[171] The system encompasses six years of primary education beginning at age 7, followed by six years of secondary education.[171] Mali's actual primary school enrolment rate is low, in large part because families are unable to cover the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and other fees required to attend.[171]
In 2017, the primary school enrolment rate was 61% (65% of males and 58% of females).[174] In the late 1990s, the secondary school enrolment rate was 15% (20% of males and 10% of females).[171] The education system is plagued by a lack of schools in rural areas, as well as shortages of teachers and materials.[171]
Estimates of literacy rates in Mali range from 27–30 to 46.4%, with literacy rates significantly lower among women than men.[171] The University of Bamako, which includes four constituent universities, is the largest university in the country and enrols approximately 60,000 undergraduate and graduate students.[175]
Mali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty, malnutrition, and inadequate hygiene and sanitation.[171] Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world.[171] Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 53.06 years in 2012.[176] In 2000, 62–65% of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69% to sanitation services of some kind.[171] In 2001, the general government expenditures on health totaled about US$4 per capita at an average exchange rate.[177]
Efforts have been made to improve nutrition, and reduce associated health problems, by encouraging women to make nutritious versions of local recipes. For example, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and the Aga Khan Foundation, trained women's groups to make equinut, a healthy and nutritional version of the traditional recipe di-dèguè (comprising peanut paste, honey and millet or rice flour). The aim was to boost nutrition and livelihoods by producing a product that women could make and sell, and which would be accepted by the local community because of its local heritage.[178]
In 2017, Mali ranked 157th out of 160 countries in the gender inequality index as reported by the United Nations Development Programme.[181] The Malian Constitution states that it protects women's rights, however many laws exist that discriminate against women.[182] Provisions in the laws limit women's decision-making power after marriage, in which the husband becomes superior to his wife.[182] Women are blamed for not maintaining the appearance of their husbands and are also blamed for the actions of their children if they misbehave, which encourages the cultural attitude that women are inferior to men.[182] The lack of participation of women in politics is due to the idea that politics is associated with men and that women should avoid this sector.[182] Education is also an area in which boys dominate, since it is a better investment for the parents.[182] As traditional values and practices have contributed to gender inequality in Mali, conflict and lawlessness have also influenced the growing gap in gender through gender-based violence.[183] The unstable government of Mali has led to organizations like USAID attempting to improve the lives of the people, mainly women and girls' rights in order to re-engage the development of the country.[183]
Gender relations
Religion, the patriarchal norms, and gender-based violence are major negative factors shaping the life of women in Mali.[184] Patriarchal norms cause major gender inequalities and lead to male domination within the household.[184] Girls learn household activities like chores, cooking, childcare, etc. at a young age and are expected to take the main responsibility of household chores throughout their life. This hampers women's ability to enter the formal workforce and leads to a lack of education of girls.[184] Gender-based violence in Mali happens both on a national and a family level. At the national level, in 2012 the conflict in the Northern part of the country increased cases of kidnappings and rapes.[183] The conflict also reduced women's access to resources, economy, and opportunities.[183] At the household level, Malian women face gender-based violence through domestic violence, forced marriages, and marital rape.[182] The Demographic Health Survey for Mali in 2013 stated that 76% of women and 54% of men believed physical harm towards women was acceptable if the women burnt food, argued back, went out without notifying her husband, or refused sexual relations with her husband.[183] In 2024, Mali officials pushed a bill that would criminalise homosexual relations between men.[185]
Area of opportunity
The lack of education has increased gender inequality in Mali because not many women are working outside the household are even participating in the Public Administration sector.[184] After adjusting the entrance requirements and access to education, girls still have lower enrollment rates and less access to formal education.[184] Drop-out rates for girls are 15% higher than that of boys because they have a higher responsibility at home and most parents refuse to allow all their children to go to school, so boys tend to become educated.[184] Similarly, technical and vocational education has a lower numbers of girls participating and are inadequately distributed in the country because the training centers are focused in the urban cities.[184] Finally, higher education for girls consist of short programs because early marriages prevent most girls from pursuing a longer term education program like those in science.[184] Although women do not have the same access of education, in recent decades women have been entering and representing in decision-making positions in the Public Administration sector.[184] Out of 147 members of Parliament, 15 were women in 2010.[184] Recent decades show that women are slowly joining important decision-making positions which is changing the attitude and status of women in Mali, which has led to the promotion of women's rights in the political sphere.[184]
Efforts
Legislation at the international and national levels have been implemented over the decades to help promote women's rights in Mali.[184] At the international, Mali signed the Beijing Platform for Action which suggest that women should participate in decision-making and the convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women which is the foundation to women's rights promotion.[184] At the national level, Mali's Constitution has the Decree No. 092-073P-CTSP that claims equality to all Malian citizens and discrimination is prohibited, which has not been followed.[184] The Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme (PRSP) and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Programme under the Malian Government seek to improve the well-being of the citizens, and changes to governance and gender in the country.[184] The Ministry for Advancement of Women, Children and the Family was created specifically for women and children so that their basics rights and needs get met under the law.[184] Although there exists legislation and policy for gender equality the institutionalization of the National Gender Policy of Mali is necessary to support the importance of women's rights.[184] Strengthening and the support of girls' and women's access to education and training is recommended to improve gender equality in Mali.[184] The involvement of international organizations like USAID assist Mali financially to enhance their development through the efforts of the improvement of women's rights.[183]
The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity.[186] Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called boubous that are typical of West Africa. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies.[186]
Though Mali's literature is less famous than its music,[189] Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers.[190] Mali's literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart.[190][191]Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember.[191]
Rice and millet are the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains.[198][199] Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from edible leaves, such as spinach or baobab, with tomato peanut sauce, and may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken, mutton, beef, or goat).[198][199] Malian cuisine varies regionally.[198][199] Other popular dishes include fufu, jollof rice, and maafe.
^Eric Huysecom, M. Rasse, L. Lespez, K. Neumann, A. Fahmy, A. Ballouche, S. Ozainne, M. Maggetti, Ch. Tribolo, S. Sorian: The emergence of pottery in Africa during the tenth millennium cal BC: new evidence from Ounjougou (Mali), in: Antiquity (2009), p. 906.
^al-Bakri in Nehemiah Levtzion and J. F. Pl Hopkins, eds and trans., Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History (New York and London: Cambridge University Press, 1981, reprint edn Princeton, New Jersey,: Marcus Wiener, 2000), pp. 82–83.
^ibn Khaldun in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds, and transl. Corpus, p. 333.
^al-Idrisi in Levtzion and Hopkins, eds. and transl, Corpus, p. 108.
^ abcdefghijklmnMali country profile. Mali was later responsible for the collapse of Islamic Slave Army from the North. The defeat of Tukuror Slave Army, was repeated by Mali against the France and Spanish Expeditionary Army in the 1800s ("Blanc et memoires"). p. 2.
^14-18 Étions-nous bien défendus ?, Jean-Claude Flament, Société des écrivains, 2014.
^ ab"Independent Mali". Britannica. 1946. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
^"Public Holidays". Embassy of the Republic of Mali to the United States. Archived from the original on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
^May, Jacques Meyer (1968). The Ecology of Malnutrition in the French Speaking Countries of West Africa and Madagascar. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. p. 291. ISBN978-0-02-848960-5.
^Hall, Bruce S. (2011) A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960. Cambridge University Press. ISBN9781107002876: "The mobilization of local ideas about racial difference has been important in generating, and intensifying, civil wars that have occurred since the end of colonial rule in all of the countries that straddle the southern edge of the Sahara Desert.... contemporary conflicts often hearken back to an older history in which blackness could be equated with slavery and non-blackness with predatory and uncivilized banditry." (cover text)
DiPiazza, Francesca Davis (2006). Mali in Pictures. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Learner Publishing Group. ISBN978-0-8225-6591-8. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
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