Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (/ˈæɡəsi/AG-ə-see; French:[aɡasi]) FRS (For) FRSE (May 28, 1807 – December 14, 1873) was a Swiss-born American biologist and geologist who is recognized as a scholar of Earth's natural history.
Agassiz is known for observational data gathering and analysis. He made institutional and scientific contributions to zoology, geology, and related areas, including multivolume research books running to thousands of pages. He is particularly known for his contributions to ichthyological classification, including of extinct species such as megalodon, and to the study of historical geology, including the founding of glaciology.
His theories on human, animal and plant polygenism have been criticised as implicitly supporting scientific racism.
Louis Agassiz was born in the village of Môtier (fr) (now part of Haut-Vully which merged into Mont-Vully in 2016) in the Swiss Canton of Fribourg.[2] He was the son of a pastor,[3] Louis Rudolphe and his wife, Rose Mayor.
His father was a Protestant clergyman, as had been his progenitors for six generations, and his mother was the daughter of a physician and an intellectual in her own right, who had assisted her husband in the education of her boys.[2] He was educated at home[2] until he spent four years at secondary school in Bienne, which he entered in 1818 and completed his elementary studies in Lausanne. Agassiz studied at the Universities of Zürich, Heidelberg and Munich. At the last one, he extended his knowledge of natural history, especially of botany. In 1829, he received the degree of doctor of philosophy at Erlangen and, in 1830, that of doctor of medicine at Munich.[4]
Moving to Paris, he came under the tutelage of Alexander von Humboldt and later received his financial benevolence.[5] Humboldt and Georges Cuvier launched him on his careers of respectively geology and zoology.[6] Ichthyology soon became a focus of Agassiz's life's work.[6]
Early work
In 1819 to 1820, the German biologists Johann Baptist von Spix and Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius undertook an expedition to Brazil. They returned home to Europe with many natural objects, including an important collection of the freshwater fish of Brazil, especially of the Amazon River. Spix, who died in 1826, likely from a tropical disease, did not live long enough to work out the history of those fish, and Martius selected Agassiz for this project.
Agassiz threw himself into the work with an enthusiasm that would go on to characterize the rest of his life's work. The task of describing the Brazilian fish was completed and published in 1829. It was followed by research into the history of fish found in Lake Neuchâtel. Enlarging his plans, he in 1830 issued a prospectus of a History of the Freshwater Fish of Central Europe. In 1839, however, the first part of the publication appeared, and it was completed in 1842.[4]
In November 1832, Agassiz was appointed professor of natural history at the University of Neuchâtel, at a salary of about US$400 and declined brilliant offers in Paris because of the leisure for private study that that position afforded him.[7] The fossil fish in the rock of the surrounding region, the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte Bolca, soon attracted his attention. At the time, very little had been accomplished in their scientific study. Agassiz as early as 1829, planned the publication of a work. More than any other, it would lay the foundation of his worldwide fame. Five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (Research on Fossil Fish) were published from 1833 to 1843. They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly by Joseph Dinkel.[8] In gathering materials for that work, Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe. Meeting Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him.[4]
In 1833, he married Cecile Braun, the sister of his friend Alexander Braun and established his household at Neuchâtel. Trained to scientific drawing by her brothers, his wife was of the greatest assistance to Agassiz, with some of the most beautiful plates in fossil and freshwater fishes being drawn by her.[7]
Agassiz found that his palaeontological analyses required a new ichthyological classification. The fossils that he examined rarely showed any traces of the soft tissues of fish but instead, consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales, and fins, with the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He therefore adopted a classification that divided fish into four groups (ganoids, placoids, cycloids, and ctenoids), based on the nature of the scales and other dermal appendages. That did much to improve fish taxonomy, but Agassiz's classification has since been superseded.[4]
With Louis de Coulon, both father and son, he founded the Societé des Sciences Naturelles, of which he was the first secretary and in conjunction with the Coulons also arranged a provisional museum of natural history in the orphan's home.[7] Agassiz needed financial support to continue his work. The British Association and the Earl of Ellesmere, then Lord Francis Egerton, stepped in to help. The 1290 original drawings made for the work were purchased by the Earl and presented by him to the Geological Society of London. In 1836, the Wollaston Medal was awarded to Agassiz by the council of that society for his work on fossil ichthyology. In 1838, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society. Meanwhile, invertebrate animals engaged his attention. In 1837, he issued the "Prodrome" of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1839–1840, he published two quarto volumes on the fossil echinoderms of Switzerland; and in 1840–1845, he issued his Études critiques sur les mollusques fossiles (Critical Studies on Fossil Mollusks).[4]
Before Agassiz's first visit to England in 1834, Hugh Miller and other geologists had brought to light the remarkable fossil fish of the Old Red Sandstone of the northeast of Scotland. The strange forms of Pterichthys, Coccosteus, and other genera were then made known to geologists for the first time. They were of intense interest to Agassiz and formed the subject of a monograph by him published in 1844–1(45: Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Grès Rouge, ou Système Dévonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Îles Britanniques et de Russie (Monograph on Fossil Fish of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian System of the British Isles and of Russia).[4] In the early stages of his career in Neuchatel, Agassiz also made a name for himself as a man who could run a scientific department well. Under his care, the University of Neuchâtel soon became a leading institution for scientific inquiry.[citation needed]
In 1842 to 1846, Agassiz issued his Nomenclator Zoologicus, a classification list with references of all names used in zoological genera and groups.
The vacation of 1836 was spent by Agassiz and his wife in the little village of Bex, where he met Jean de Charpentier and Ignaz Venetz. Their recently announced glacial theories had startled the scientific world, and Agassiz returned to Neuchâtel as an enthusiastic convert.[10] In 1837, Agassiz proposed that the Earth had been subjected to a past ice age.[11] He presented the theory to the Helvetic Society that ancient glaciers flowed outward from the Alps, and even larger glaciers had covered the plains and mountains of Europe, Asia, and North America and smothered the entire Northern Hemisphere in a prolonged ice age. In the same year, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Before that proposal, Goethe, de Saussure, Ignaz Venetz, Jean de Charpentier, Karl Friedrich Schimper, and others had studied the glaciers of the Alps, and Goethe,[12] Charpentier, and Schimper[11] had even concluded that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura Mountains had been moved there by glaciers. Those ideas attracted the attention of Agassiz, and he discussed them with Charpentier and Schimper, whom he accompanied on successive trips to the Alps. Agassiz even had a hut constructed upon one of the Aar Glaciers and for a time made it his home to investigate the structure and movements of the ice.[4]
Agassiz visited England, and with William Buckland, the only English naturalist who shared his ideas, made a tour of the British Isles in search of glacial phenomena, and became satisfied that his theory of an ice age was correct.[10] In 1840, Agassiz published a two-volume work, Études sur les glaciers ("Studies on Glaciers").[13] In it, he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their moraines, and their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks and in producing the striations and roches moutonnées seen in Alpine-style landscapes. He accepted Charpentier and Schimper's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide plains and valleys of the Aar and Rhône, but he went further by concluding that in the recent past, Switzerland had been covered with one vast sheet of ice originating in the higher Alps and extending over the valley of northwestern Switzerland to the southern slopes of the Jura. The publication of the work gave fresh impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world.[14]
Familiar then with recent glaciation, Agassiz and the English geologist William Buckland visited the mountains of Scotland in 1840. There, they found clear evidence in different locations of glacial action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society of London in successive communications. The mountainous districts of England, Wales, and Ireland were understood to have been centres for the dispersion of glacial debris. Agassiz remarked "that great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland, once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel (boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general produced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent surface, etc."[15]
In his later years, Agassiz applied his glacial theories to the geology of the Brazilian tropics, including the Amazon. Agassiz began with a working hypothesis which could be tested by the results of fieldwork to find either inconclusive, or conclusively supporting or refuting evidence. A hypothesis that can be conclusively refuted is better than a hypothesis that is difficult to test. Agassiz had a close association with his student and field assistant, the geologist Charles Hartt who eventually refuted Agassiz's theories about the Amazon based on his fieldwork there. Instead of evidence for any glacial processes, he found chemically weathered sediments from marine and tropical fluvial, not glacial, processes, a finding that later geologists confirmed.[16] Agassiz hypothesis that the Amazon was affected by the Last Glacial Maximum was correct, although the mechanism causing the effect was non-glacial. The Amazon rainforest was split into two large blocks by extensive savanna during the LGM.
United States
With the aid of a grant of money from the king of Prussia, Agassiz crossed the Atlantic in the autumn of 1846 to investigate the natural history and geology of North America and to deliver a course of lectures on "The Plan of Creation as shown in the Animal Kingdom"[17] by invitation from John Amory Lowell, at the Lowell Institute in Boston, Massachusetts. The financial offers that were presented to him in the United States induced him to settle there, where he remained to the end of his life.[15] He was elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1846.[18]
In 1846, still married to Cecilie, who remained with their three children in Switzerland, Agassiz met Elizabeth Cabot Cary at a dinner. The two developed a romantic attachment, and when his wife died in 1848, they made plans to marry. The ceremony took place on April 25, 1850, in Boston, Massachusetts at King's Chapel. Agassiz brought his children to live with them, and Elizabeth raised and developed close relationships with her step-children. She had no children of her own.[19]
Agassiz had a mostly cordial relationship with the Harvard botanist Asa Gray despite their disagreements.[20] Agassiz believed each human race had been separately created,[21] but Gray, a supporter of Charles Darwin, believed in the shared evolutionary ancestry of all humans.[22] In addition, Agassiz was a member of the Scientific Lazzaroni, a group of mostly physical scientists who wanted American academia to mimic the more autocratic academic structures of European universities, but Gray was a staunch opponent of that group.
Agassiz's engagement for the Lowell Institute lectures precipitated the establishment in 1847 of the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University, with Agassiz as its head.[23] Harvard appointed him professor of zoology and geology, and he founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology there in 1859 and served as its first director until his death in 1873. During his tenure at Harvard, Agassiz studied the effect of the last ice age in North America.[citation needed] In August 1857, Agassiz was offered the chair of palaeontology in the Museum of Natural History, Paris, which he refused. He was later decorated with the Cross of the Legion of Honor.[24]
Agassiz continued his lectures for the Lowell Institute. In succeeding years, he gave lectures on "Ichthyology" (1847–1848), "Comparative Embryology" (1848–1849), "Functions of Life in Lower Animals" (1850–1851), "Natural History" (1853–1854), "Methods of Study in Natural History" (1861–1862), "Glaciers and the Ice Period" (1864–1865), "Brazil" (1866–1867), and "Deep Sea Dredging" (1869–1870).[25] In 1850, he had married Elizabeth Cabot Cary, who later wrote introductory books about natural history and a lengthy biography of her husband after he had died.[26]
Agassiz served as a nonresident lecturer at Cornell University while he was also on faculty at Harvard.[27] In 1852, he accepted a medical professorship of comparative anatomy at Charlestown, Massachusetts, but he resigned in two years.[15] From then on, Agassiz's scientific studies dropped off, but he became one of the best-known scientists in the world. By 1857, Agassiz was so well-loved that his friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz" in his honor and read it at a dinner given for Agassiz by the Saturday Club in Cambridge.[15] Agassiz's own writing continued with four (of a planned 10) volumes of Natural History of the United States, published from 1857 to 1862. He also published a catalog of papers in his field, Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae, in four volumes between 1848 and 1854.[28][29][30][31]
Stricken by ill health in the 1860s, Agassiz resolved to return to the field for relaxation and to resume his studies of Brazilian fish. In April 1865, he led the Thayer Expedition to Brazil. While there, he commissioned two photographers, Augusto Stahl and Georges Leuzinger, to accompany the expedition and produce somatological images of Indigenous people and enslaved Africans and Black people.[32] After his return in August 1866, an account of the expedition, A Journey in Brazil,[33] was published in 1868. In December 1871, he made a second eight-month excursion, known as the Hassler expedition under the command of Commander Philip Carrigan Johnson (the brother of Eastman Johnson) and visited South America on its southern Atlantic and Pacific Seaboards. The ship explored the Magellan Strait, which drew the praise of Charles Darwin.[34]
Following the establishment of the first U.S. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in New York City in 1866, Agassiz was called on to help settle disputes about animal behavior. He deemed the way turtles were shipped caused them suffering, while P.T. Barnum argued with Agassiz' support that his snakes would eat only live animals.[35]
His second wife, Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, assisted him in preparing his A Journey in Brazil. Along with her stepson, Alexander Agassiz, she wrote Seaside Studies in Natural History and Marine Animals of Massachusetts.[24] Elizabeth wrote at the Strait that "the Hassler pursued her course, past a seemingly endless panorama of mountains and forests rising into the pale regions of snow and ice, where lay glaciers in which every rift and crevasse, as well as the many cascades flowing down to join the waters beneath, could be counted as she steamed by them.... These were weeks of exquisite delight to Agassiz. The vessel often skirted the shore so closely that its geology could be studied from the deck."[36]
Family
From his first marriage to Cecilie Braun, Agassiz had two daughters, Ida and Pauline, and a son, Alexander.[37]
In 1863, Agassiz's daughter Ida married Henry Lee Higginson, who later founded the Boston Symphony Orchestra and was a benefactor to Harvard and other schools. On November 30, 1860, Agassiz's daughter Pauline was married to Quincy Adams Shaw (1825–1908), a wealthy Boston merchant and later a benefactor to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.[38] Pauline Agassiz Shaw later became a prominent educator, suffragist, and philanthropist.[39]
Later life
In the last years of his life, Agassiz worked to establish a permanent school in which zoological science could be pursued amid the living subjects of its study. In 1873, the private philanthropist John Anderson gave Agassiz the island of Penikese, in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts (south of New Bedford), and presented him with $50,000 to endow it permanently as a practical school of natural science that would be especially devoted to the study of marine zoology.[15] The school collapsed soon after Agassiz's death but is considered to be a precursor of the nearby Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory.[40]
In the early 1840s, Agassiz named two fossil fish species after Mary Anning (Acrodus anningiae and Belenostomus anningiae) and another after her friend, Elizabeth Philpot. Anning was a paleontologist known around the world for important finds, but because of her gender, she was often not formally recognized for her work. Agassiz was grateful for the help that the women gave him in examining fossil fish specimens during his visit to Lyme Regis in 1834.[46]
The Cambridge elementary school north of Harvard University was named in his honor, and the surrounding neighborhood became known as "Agassiz" as a result. The school's name was changed to the Maria L. Baldwin School on May 21, 2002, because of concerns about Agassiz's involvement in scientific racism and to honor Maria Louise Baldwin, the African-American principal of the school, who served from 1889 to 1922.[48][49] The neighborhood, however, continued to be known as Agassiz.[50] c. 2009, neighborhood residents decided to rename the neighborhood's community council as the "Agassiz-Baldwin Community".[51] Then, in July 2021, culminating a two-year effort on the part of neighborhood residents, the Cambridge City Council voted unanimously to change the name to the Baldwin Neighborhood.[52] An elementary school, the Agassiz Elementary School in Minneapolis, Minnesota, existed from 1922 to 1981.[53]
In 2020, a new genus of pycnodont fish (Actinopterygii, Pycnodontiformes) named Agassazilia erfoundina (Cooper and Martill, 2020) from the Moroccan Kem Kem Group was named in honor of Agassiz, who first identified the group in the 1830s.
Tribute awards
In 2005, the European Geosciences Union Division on Cryospheric Sciences established the Louis Agassiz Medal, awarded to individuals in recognition of their outstanding scientific contribution to the study of the cryosphere on Earth or elsewhere in the solar system.[57]
There, at the table's further end I see
In his old place our Poet's vis-à-vis,
The great PROFESSOR, strong, broad-shouldered, square,
In life's rich noontide, joyous, debonair
...
How will her realm be darkened, losing thee,
Her darling, whom we call our AGASSIZ!
Daguerreotypes of Renty and Delia Taylor
In 1850, Agassiz commissioned daguerreotypes, which were described as "haunting and voyeuristic" of the enslaved Renty Taylor and Taylor's daughter, Delia, to further his arguments about black inferiority.[58] They are the earliest known photographs of enslaved persons.[59][60][58][61] Agassiz left the images to Harvard, and they remained in the Peabody Museum's attic until 1976, when they were rediscovered by Ellie Reichlin, a former staff member.[62][63] The 15 daguerrotypes were in a case with the embossing "J. T. Zealy, Photographer, Columbia," with several handwritten labels, which helped in later identification.[63] Reichlin spent months doing research to try to identify the people in the photos, but Harvard University did not make efforts to contact the families and licensed the photos for use.[63][64]
In 2011, Tamara Lanier wrote a letter to the president of Harvard that identified herself as a direct descendant of the Taylors and asked the university to turn over the photos to her.[64][65]
In 2019, Taylor's descendants sued Harvard for the return of the images and unspecified damages.[66] The lawsuit was supported by 43 living descendants of Agassiz, who wrote in a letter of support, "For Harvard to give the daguerreotypes to Ms. Lanier and her family would begin to make amends for its use of the photos as exhibits for the white supremacist theory Agassiz espoused." Everyone must evaluate fully "his role in promoting a pseudoscientific justification for white supremacy."[59]
Aggasiz-Zeally Gallery
"Papa" Renty Taylor Born Congo, 1775-died on/after 1866. Field hand on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina [Note a side profile picture can be found at online article "Louis Agassiz Two Faces"]
Delia (Born America); daughter of Renty on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina [Picture # 1]
Delia daughter of Renty on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina [Picture # 2]
Jack of Guinea, a slave driver on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina [Picture # 1]
Jack of Guinea, a slave driver on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina [Picture # 2]
Drana daughter of Jack on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina [Picture # 1]
Drana daughter of Jack on B.F. Taylor Plantation, Columbia South Carolina [Picture # 2]
Fassena a mandingo Carpender on Wade Hampton Plantation, South Carolina[Note a full face picture can be found at https://saa3dm.org/2021/11/16/1850]
"Jem. A Gullah..B.W. Green Plantation [See American Heritage June 1977 "Faces of Slavery"]
Polygenism and racism
Agassiz was a well-known natural scientist of his generation in America.[68] In addition to being a natural scientist, Agassiz wrote prolifically in the field of scientific polygenism after he came to the United States.
Upon arriving in Boston in 1846, Agassiz spent a few months acquainting himself with the northeast region of the United States.[69] He spent much of his time with Samuel George Morton, a famous American anthropologist at the time who became well known by analyzing fossils brought back by Lewis and Clark.[70] One of Morton’s personal projects involved studying cranial capacity of human skulls from around the world. Morton aimed to use craniometry to prove that white people were biologically superior to other races. His work "Crania Aegyptiaca" claimed to support the polygenism belief that the races were created separately and each had their own unique attributes.[71]
Morton relied on other scientists to send him skulls along with information about where they were acquired. Factors that can affect cranial capacity, such as body size and gender, were not taken into consideration by Morton.[70] He made questionable judgment calls such as dismissing Hindu skull calculations from his Caucasian cranial measurements because they brought the overall average down. Oppositely, he included Peruvian skull measurements alongside Native American calculations even though the Peruvian numbers lowered the average score. Despite Morton's unsound methods, his published work on cranial capacities across races was deemed authoritative in the United States and Europe. Morton is a primary influence on Agassiz's belief in polygenism.[70]
John Amory Lowell invited Agassiz to present twelve lectures in December 1846 on three subjects titled "The Plan of Creation as shown in the Animal Kingdom, Ichthyology, and Comparative Embryology” as a part of the Lowell Lecture series. These lectures were widely attended with up to 5,000 people in attendance on some nights.[72] It was during these lectures that Agassiz announced for the first time that black and white people had different origins but were part of the same species.[70] Agassiz repeated this lecture 10 months later to the Charleston Literary Club but changed his original stance, claiming that black people were physiologically and anatomically a distinct species.[70]
Agassiz believed that humans did not descend from one single common ancestor. He believed that like plants and animals, various regions have differentiated species of humans.[69] He considered this hypothesis testable, and matched to the available evidence. He also indicated that there were obvious geographical barriers that were the likely cause of speciation.
Stephen Jay Gould asserted that Agassiz's observations sprang from racist bias, in particular from his revulsion on first encountering African-Americans in the United States.[73] Referencing letters written by Agassiz, Gould compares Agassiz' public display of dispassionate objectivity to his private correspondence, in which he describes "the production of half breeds" as "a sin against nature..." Describing the interbreeding of white and black people, he warns, "We have already had to struggle, in our progress, against the influence of universal equality... but how shall we eradicate the stigma of a lower race when its blood has once been allowed to flow freely into our children." In contrast, others have asserted that, despite favoring polygenism, Agassiz rejected racism and believed in a spiritualized human unity. However, in the same article, Agassiz asks the reader to consider the hierarchy of races, mentioning "The indomitable, courageous, proud Indian, — in how very different a light he stands by the side of the submissive, obsequious, imitative negro, or by the side of the tricky, cunning, and cowardly Mongolian! Are not these facts indications that the different races do not rank upon one level in nature?"
Agassiz never supported slavery and claimed his views on polygenism had nothing to do with politics.[70] His views on polygenism have been claimed to have emboldened proponents of slavery.
Accusations of racism against Agassiz have prompted the renaming of landmarks, schoolhouses, and other institutions (which abound in Massachusetts) that bear his name. Opinions about those moves are often mixed, given his extensive scientific legacy in other areas, and uncertainty about his actual racial beliefs. In 2007, the Swiss government acknowledged his "racist thinking", but declined to rename the Agassizhorn summit. In 2017, the Swiss Alpine Club declined to revoke Agassiz's status as a member of honor, which he received in 1865 for his scientific work, because the club considered that status to have lapsed on Agassiz's death. In 2020, the Stanford Department of Psychology asked for a statue of Louis Agassiz to be removed from the front façade of its building. In 2021, Chicago Public Schools announced they would remove Agassiz's name from an elementary school and rename it for the abolitionist and political activist, Harriet Tubman. In 2022, The Trustees of Reservations renamed Agassiz Rock as The Monoliths.[74]
^Brice, W. R. and Silvia F. de M. Figueiroa 2001 Charles Hartt, Louis Agassiz, and the controversy over Pleistocene glaciation in Brazil. History of Science 39(2): 161-184.
^Paton, Lucy Allen. Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz; a biography. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1919.
^Dupree, A. Hunter (1988). Asa Gray, American Botanist, Friend of Darwin. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 152–154, 224–225. ISBN978-0-801-83741-8.
^Dupree, A. Hunter (1988). Asa Gray, American Botanist, Friend of Darwin. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. ix–xv, 152–154, 224–225. ISBN978-0-801-83741-8.
^A History of Cornell by Morris Bishop (1962), p. 83.
^Agassiz, Louis (1848). Bibliographia Zoologiæ Et Geologiæ. A General Catalogue of All Books, Tracts, and Memoirs on Zoology and Geology Volume 1. Ray Society.
^Agassiz, Louis (1850). Bibliographia Zoologiæ Et Geologiæ A General Catalogue of All Books, Tracts, and Memoirs On Zoology and Geology; Volume 2. Ray Society.
^Agassiz, Louis (1853). Bibliographia Zoologiæ Et Geologiæ A General Catalogue of All Books, Tracts, and Memoirs On Zoology and Geology; Volume 3. Ray Society.
^Agassiz, Louis (1854). Bibliographia Zoologiæ Et Geologiæ A General Catalogue of All Books, Tracts, and Memoirs on Zoology and Geology · Volume 4. Ray Society.
^Ermakoff, George (2004). O negro na fotografia brasileira do século XIX. G. Ermakoff.
^Agassiz, Louis (1868). A Journey in Brazil. Ticknor and Fields. ISBN9780608433790.
^Dexter, R.W. (1980). "The Annisquam Sea-side Laboratory of Alpheus Hyatt, Predecessor of the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, 1880–1886". In Sears, Mary; Merriman, Daniel (eds.). Oceanography: The Past. New York: Springer. pp. 94–100. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-8090-0_10. ISBN978-1-4613-8090-0. OCLC840282810.
^James, William. "Louis Agassiz, Words Spoken.... at the Reception of the American Society of Naturalists.... [Dec 30, 1896]. pp. 9–10. Cambridge, 1897. Quoted in Cooper 1917, pp. 61–62.
^"agassiz_ns_3.pdf"(PDF). Archived from the original on June 7, 2010. Retrieved October 3, 2005.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link). cambridgema.gov
^Meghan E. Irons. "Hurdles Cleared, Cambridge Group Celebrates Arts Project." Boston Globe, October 1, 2009, p. B5.
^Marc Levy. "Baldwin Neighborhood Name is Approved 9-0, Replacing Agassiz; Second Such Change Since '15." Cambridge (Massachusetts) Day, August 2, 2021, [1]
^"Agassiz". mpshistory.mpls.k12.mn.us. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
^ abcBeolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. ISBN978-1-4214-0135-5. ("Agassiz, J.L.R.", p. 2).
Dexter, R W (1979). "The impact of evolutionary theories on the Salem group of Agassiz zoologists (Morse, Hyatt, Packard, Putnam)". Essex Institute Historical Collections. Vol. 115, no. 3. pp. 144–71. PMID11616944.
Emling, Shelley (2009). The Fossil Hunter: Dinosaurs, Evolution, and the Woman whose Discoveries Changed the World. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN978-0-230-61156-6.
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Lurie, Edward (2008). "Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolphe". Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 72–74.
Mackie, G O (1989). "Louis Agassiz and the discovery of the coelenterate nervous system". History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences. Vol. 11, no. 1. pp. 71–81. PMID2573108.
Numbers, Ronald L. (2006). The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design (Expanded ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-02339-0.
Agassiz Rock, EdinburghArchived January 21, 2021, at the Wayback Machine – during a visit to Edinburgh in 1840, Agassiz explained the striations on this rock's surface as due to glaciation
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Pre-dreadnought battleship of the United States Navy For other ships with the same name, see USS Wisconsin. USS Wisconsin at anchor History United States NameWisconsin NamesakeState of Wisconsin BuilderUnion Iron Works Laid down9 February 1897 Launched26 November 1898 Commissioned4 February 1901 Decommissioned15 May 1920 Stricken1 July 1921 FateSold for scrap General characteristics Class and typeIllinois-class battleship Displacement Normal: 11,565 long tons (11,751 t) Full load: 12,250 lo…
Syngenta Group Co., Ltd.англ. Syngenta Group Co., Ltd. Логотип Тип ПублічнаФорма власності компанія з обмеженою відповідальністю[d]Галузь аграрне та хімічне виробництвоЗасновано 2020Штаб-квартира Шанхай, КНРКлючові особи Erik Fyrwald(Chief Executive Officer)Li Fanrong(Chairman of the Board of Directors)Продукція Насіння, за
ميت حي أغنية غيمسمن ألبوم سابليمينال الفنان غيمس تاريخ الإصدار ديسمبر 2013 التسجيل سوني ميوزيك [لغات أخرى] النوع بوب، راب اللغة اللغة الفرنسية التسلسل الزمني لأغاني غيمس أنت تخسر وارانو ستايل تعديل مصدري - تعديل ميت حي (بالفرنسية: Zombie) وهي إصدار منفرد لمغن…
Boccia was een van de sporten op het programma van de Paralympische Zomerspelen van 2004 in Athene, Griekenland. Deelnemende landen Argentinië Canada Denemarken Griekenland Vlag van Verenigd Koninkrijk Groot-Brittannië Hongarije Hongkong Ierland Nieuw-Zeeland Noorwegen Oostenrijk Portugal Slowakije Spanje Thailand Tsjechië Verenigde Staten Individueel BC1 Plaats Land Sporter 1 POR João …
gráfico que mostra como energia podem subir, com uma produção em massa de energia renovável. As energias renováveis em Portugal representaram, em 2016, 57% da energia elétrica produzida internamente[1], e têm-se tornando o foco de um investimento governamental e privado cada vez mais acentuado. Em 2021, Portugal tinha, em energia elétrica renovável instalada, 7 241 MW em energia hidroelétrica (27º maior do mundo), 5 248 MW em energia eólica (18º maior do mundo), …
مستر أولمبيا 2018 شعار مستر أولمبياشعار مستر أولمبيا معلومات عامة فترة الانعقاد 14 - 16 سبتمبر 2018 المنظم الاتحاد الدولي لكمال الأجسام واللياقة البدنية (IFBB) المنطقة العالم تواترها سنوية ترتيب النسخة 54 نوعية المشاركين محترفون الموقع الرسمي الموقع الرسمي لمحترفي اتحاد IFBB قائم…
Public, coeducational high school in Powell, Ohio, , United StatesOlentangy Liberty High SchoolAddress3584 Home RoadPowell, Ohio, (Delaware County) 43065United StatesCoordinates40°11′53″N 83°5′56″W / 40.19806°N 83.09889°W / 40.19806; -83.09889InformationTypePublic, Coeducational high schoolOpenedAugust 24th, 2003School districtOlentangy Local School DistrictPrincipalMichael StarnerTeaching staff98.74 (FTE)[1]Grades9-12School roll1,931 (fall 2021)Studen…
This article is about the original Alfa Romeo Spider. For the Alfa Romeo Spider (916) launched in 1995, see Alfa Romeo GTV and Spider. For the Alfa Romeo Spider (939) launched in 2006, see Alfa Romeo Brera and Spider. Motor vehicle Alfa Romeo SpiderAlfa Romeo Spider Series 2 (Coda Tronca)OverviewManufacturerAlfa Romeo (1966–1986)Alfa Lancia Industriale (1987–1991)Fiat Auto (1991–1993)Also calledAlfa Romeo DuettoProduction1966–1993Model years1966–1994AssemblyItaly: Grugliasco,…
Syrian writer and scriptwriter (1964–2023) Khaled KhalifaNative nameخالد خليفةBorn(1964-01-01)1 January 1964Urum al-Sughra, Aleppo Governorate, SyriaDied30 September 2023(2023-09-30) (aged 59)Damascus, SyriaOccupationNovelistScreenwriterPoetYears active1993–2023Notable worksIn Praise of HatredNotable awardsNaguib Mahfouz Medal for Literature (2013)Websitekhaledkhalifa.com Khaled Khalifa (Arabic: خالد خليفة; 1 January 1964 – 30 September 2023) was a Syrian noveli…
American actor (born 1948) This article is about the American actor. For his father, the oboist, see John de Lancie (oboist). John de LancieDe Lancie at the 2023 GalaxyCon RaleighBornJohn Sherwood de Lancie, Jr. (1948-03-20) March 20, 1948 (age 75)[1]Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.EducationKent State UniversityJuilliard School (BFA)OccupationActorYears active1976–presentSpouse Marnie Mosiman (m. 1984)Children2, including KeeganParentJohn de Lan…
MetaKomuneComune di MetaLokasi Meta di Provinsi NapoliNegara ItaliaWilayah CampaniaProvinsiNapoli (NA)Luas[1] • Total2,25 km2 (0,87 sq mi)Ketinggian[2]111 m (364 ft)Populasi (2016)[3] • Total7.969 • Kepadatan3,500/km2 (9,200/sq mi)Zona waktuUTC+1 (CET) • Musim panas (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Kode pos80062Kode area telepon081Situs webhttp://www.comune.meta.na.it Meta adalah sebuah kota dan komun…
Flughafen Salzburg Flughafen Wien von Süden Flughafen Klagenfurt Flughafen Innsbruck Die Liste der Flughäfen in Österreich enthält alle österreichischen Flughäfen, die von nationalen und internationalen Fluggesellschaften angeflogen werden und damit nach österreichischem Recht (§64 Luftfahrtgesetz) den Status eines Flughafens besitzen. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Erklärung 2 Verkehrsflughäfen 3 Passagierzahlen 4 Flugbewegungen 5 Luftfracht in [t] 6 Siehe auch 7 Einzelnachweise Erklärung Name…
Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang pulau yang juga bernama Guinea Baru. Untuk pulau kecil di Antartika yang bernama sama, lihat Pulau Papua (Kepulauan Joinville). Untuk provinsi di Indonesia, lihat Papua. Untuk wilayah teritori Indonesia, lihat Papua (wilayah Indonesia). Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Papua (disambiguasi). Nugini, Guinea Baru, dan Irian dialihkan ke halaman ini. Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Guinea (disambiguasi). PapuaTopografi Pulau PapuaGeografiLokasiOseania (Melanesia)Koordinat5°2…
Bản tin sángẢnh quảng cáo của phim trên Apple TV+Tên khácMorning WarsThe Morning ShowThể loại Phim chính kịch Sáng lậpJay CarsonDựa trênTop of the Morning: Inside the Cutthroat World of Morning TVcủa Brian StelterDiễn viên Jennifer Aniston Reese Witherspoon Billy Crudup Mark Duplass Gugu Mbatha-Raw Néstor Carbonell Karen Pittman Bel Powley Desean Terry Jack Davenport Steve Carell Nhạc dạoNemesis của Benjamin ClementineQuốc gia Hoa KỳNgôn ngữ…
Untuk pembersihan pakaian, lihat mencuci. Menggunakan sabun untuk mencuci tangan Mesin cuci rumahan Pencucian adalah salah satu metode dalam membersihkan, biasanya menggunakan air dan sabun atau deterjen. Pencucian atau pembersihan badan dan pakaian merupakan bagian penting dari kesehatan. Sabun dan deterjen digunakan untuk emulsifikasi lemak dan partikel kotoran sehingga mereka bisa dibilas dengan air. Sabun dan deterjen dapat diterapkan secara langsung ke permukaan yang akan dibersihkan atau d…
1954 science fiction novel by Jack Finney For other uses, see Body Snatcher (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: The Body Snatchers – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Body Snatchers First edition cov…
United States historic placeLas Vegas Grammar SchoolU.S. National Register of Historic Places Location401 Las Vegas Blvd. SLas Vegas, NevadaBuilt1936ArchitectOrville L. ClarkArchitectural styleMission; Spanish RevivalNRHP reference No.88000549Added to NRHPMay 20, 1988 The Las Vegas Grammar School on Las Vegas Boulevard, also known as the Historic Fifth Street School, is a school listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Nevada and is located in the city of Las Vegas. T…
قرية حصن المخير - قرية - تقسيم إداري البلد اليمن المحافظة محافظة المحويت المديرية مديرية الطويلة العزلة عزلة شمات (حصن المخير) السكان التعداد السكاني 2004 السكان 2٬573 • الذكور 1٬283 • الإناث 1٬290 • عدد الأسر 304 • عدد المساكن 298 معلومات أخرى التوقيت تو…
هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (نوفمبر 2020) حقائق المعرفة في علم الكلام هو كتاب من تأليف الإمام أحمد بن سليمان (566هـ) من أهم الكتب الزيدية التي ألفت في أصول الدين، وهو من المناهج المعتمدة في مدارس الزيدي…