Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The source code may be used, modified, and distributed commercially or non-commercially by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License (GPL). The Linux kernel, for example, is licensed under the GPLv2, with an exception for system calls that allows code that calls the kernel via system calls not to be licensed under the GPL.[42][43][25]
The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969, at AT&T's Bell Labs, in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna.[44] First released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. In 1973, in a key pioneering approach, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie (except for some hardware and I/O routines). The availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier.[45]
Onyx Systems began selling early microcomputer-based Unix workstations in 1980. Later, Sun Microsystems, founded as a spin-off of a student project at Stanford University, also began selling Unix-based desktop workstations in 1982. While Sun workstations did not use commodity PC hardware, for which Linux was later originally developed, it represented the first successful commercial attempt at distributing a primarily single-user microcomputer that ran a Unix operating system.[48][49]
Minix was created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum, a computer science professor, and released in 1987 as a minimal Unix-like operating system targeted at students and others who wanted to learn operating system principles. Although the complete source code of Minix was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000.[52]
Although not released until 1992, due to legal complications, the development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Linus Torvalds has stated on separate occasions that if the GNU kernel or 386BSD had been available at the time (1991), he probably would not have created Linux.[53][54]
Creation
While attending the University of Helsinki in the fall of 1990, Torvalds enrolled in a Unix course.[55] The course used a MicroVAX minicomputer running Ultrix, and one of the required texts was Operating Systems: Design and Implementation by Andrew S. Tanenbaum. This textbook included a copy of Tanenbaum's Minix operating system. It was with this course that Torvalds first became exposed to Unix. In 1991, he became curious about operating systems.[56] Frustrated by the licensing of Minix, which at the time limited it to educational use only,[52] he began to work on his operating system kernel, which eventually became the Linux kernel.
On July 3, 1991, to implement Unix system calls, Linus Torvalds attempted unsuccessfully to obtain a digital copy of the POSIX standards documentation with a request to the comp.os.minixnewsgroup.[57] After not finding the POSIX documentation, Torvalds initially resorted to determining system calls from SunOS documentation owned by the university for use in operating its Sun Microsystems server. He also learned some system calls from Tanenbaum's Minix text.
Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on Minix and applications written for Minix were also used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems.[58] GNU applications also replaced all Minix components, because it was advantageous to use the freely available code from the GNU Project with the fledgling operating system; code licensed under the GNU GPL can be reused in other computer programs as long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[59] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, creating a fully functional and free operating system.[60]
Naming
5.25-inch floppy disks holding a very early version of Linux
Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention "Freax", a portmanteau of "free", "freak", and "x" (as an allusion to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, some of the project's makefiles included the name "Freax" for about half a year. Initially, Torvalds considered the name "Linux" but dismissed it as too egotistical.[61]
To facilitate development, the files were uploaded to the FTP server (ftp.funet.fi) of FUNET in September 1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvalds' coworker at the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did not think that "Freax" was a good name, so he named the project "Linux" on the server without consulting Torvalds.[61] Later, however, Torvalds consented to "Linux".
According to a newsgroup post by Torvalds,[15] the word "Linux" should be pronounced (/ˈlɪnʊks/ⓘLIN-uuks) with a short 'i' as in 'print' and 'u' as in 'put'. To further demonstrate how the word "Linux" should be pronounced, he included an audio guide with the kernel source code.[62] However, in this recording, he pronounces Linux as /ˈlinʊks/ (LEEN-uuks) with a short but close front unrounded vowel, instead of a near-close near-front unrounded vowel as in his newsgroup post.
The adoption of Linux in production environments, rather than being used only by hobbyists, started to take off first in the mid-1990s in the supercomputing community, where organizations such as NASA started to replace their increasingly expensive machines with clusters of inexpensive commodity computers running Linux. Commercial use began when Dell and IBM, followed by Hewlett-Packard, started offering Linux support to escape Microsoft's monopoly in the desktop operating system market.[63]
Today, Linux systems are used throughout computing, from embedded systems to virtually all supercomputers,[35][64] and have secured a place in server installations such as the popular LAMP application stack. The use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[65][66][67][68][69][70][71] Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their own ChromeOS designed for netbooks.
Linux's greatest success in the consumer market is perhaps the mobile device market, with Android being the dominant operating system on smartphones and very popular on tablets and, more recently, on wearables. Linux gaming is also on the rise with Valve showing its support for Linux and rolling out SteamOS, its own gaming-oriented Linux distribution, which was later implemented in their Steam Deck platform. Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such as the federal government of Brazil.[72]
Linus Torvalds is the lead maintainer for the Linux kernel and guides its development, while Greg Kroah-Hartman is the lead maintainer for the stable branch.[73]Zoë Kooyman is the executive director of the Free Software Foundation,[74] which in turn supports the GNU components.[75] Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.
Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.
Many developers of open-source software agree that the Linux kernel was not designed but rather evolved through natural selection. Torvalds considers that although the design of Unix served as a scaffolding, "Linux grew with a lot of mutations – and because the mutations were less than random, they were faster and more directed than alpha-particles in DNA."[76]Eric S. Raymond considers Linux's revolutionary aspects to be social, not technical: before Linux, complex software was designed carefully by small groups, but "Linux evolved in a completely different way. From nearly the beginning, it was rather casually hacked on by huge numbers of volunteers coordinating only through the Internet. Quality was maintained not by rigid standards or autocracy but by the naively simple strategy of releasing every week and getting feedback from hundreds of users within days, creating a sort of rapid Darwinian selection on the mutations introduced by developers."[77]Bryan Cantrill, an engineer of a competing OS, agrees that "Linux wasn't designed, it evolved", but considers this to be a limitation, proposing that some features, especially those related to security,[78] cannot be evolved into, "this is not a biological system at the end of the day, it's a software system."[79]
A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system, deriving much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which handles process control, networking, access to the peripherals, and file systems. Device drivers are either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules that are loaded while the system is running.[80]
The GNU userland is a key part of most systems based on the Linux kernel, with Android being the notable exception. The GNU C library, an implementation of the C standard library, works as a wrapper for the system calls of the Linux kernel necessary to the kernel-userspace interface, the toolchain is a broad collection of programming tools vital to Linux development (including the compilers used to build the Linux kernel itself), and the coreutils implement many basic Unix tools. The GNU Project also develops Bash, a popular CLI shell. The graphical user interface (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the X Window System.[81] More recently, the Linux community has sought to advance to Wayland as the new display server protocol, in place of X11. Many other open-source software projects contribute to Linux systems.
Various layers within Linux, also showing separation between the userland and kernel space
Installed components of a Linux system include the following:[81][83]
A bootloader, for example GNU GRUB, LILO, SYSLINUX or systemd-boot. This is a program that loads the Linux kernel into the computer's main memory, by being executed by the computer when it is turned on and after the firmware initialization is performed.
An init program, such as the traditional sysvinit and the newer systemd, OpenRC and Upstart. This is the first process launched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the process tree. It starts processes such as system services and login prompts (whether graphical or in terminal mode).
Software libraries, which contain code that can be used by running processes. On Linux systems using ELF-format executable files, the dynamic linker that manages the use of dynamic libraries is known as ld-linux.so. If the system is set up for the user to compile software themselves, header files will also be included to describe the programming interface of installed libraries. Besides the most commonly used software library on Linux systems, the GNU C Library (glibc), there are numerous other libraries, such as SDL and Mesa.
The C standard library is the library necessary to run programs written in C on a computer system, with the GNU C Library being the standard. It provides an implementation of the POSIX API, as well as extensions to that API. For embedded systems, alternatives such as musl, EGLIBC (a glibc fork once used by Debian) and uClibc (which was designed for uClinux) have been developed, although the last two are no longer maintained. Android uses its own C library, Bionic. However, musl can additionally be used as a replacement for glibc on desktop and laptop systems, as seen on certain Linux distributions like Void Linux.
Basic Unix commands, with GNU coreutils being the standard implementation. Alternatives exist for embedded systems, such as the copyleft BusyBox, and the BSD-licensed Toybox.
User interface programs such as command shells or windowing environments.
User interface
The user interface, also known as the shell, is either a command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default user interface is usually graphical, although the CLI is commonly available through terminal emulator windows or on a separate virtual console.
CLI shells are text-based user interfaces, which use text for both input and output. The dominant shell used in Linux is the Bourne-Again Shell (bash), originally developed for the GNU Project. Most low-level Linux components, including various parts of the userland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks and provides very simple inter-process communication.
On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the GUI shells, packaged together with extensive desktop environments, such as KDE Plasma, GNOME, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, Pantheon, and Xfce, though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on the X Window System, often simply called "X". It provides network transparency and permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the X Window System are not capable of working over the network.[84] Several X display servers exist, with the reference implementation, X.Org Server, being the most popular.
Server distributions might provide a command-line interface for developers and administrators, but provide a custom interface for end-users, designed for the use case of the system. This custom interface is accessed through a client that resides on another system, not necessarily Linux-based.
Several types of window managers exist for X11, including tiling, dynamic, stacking, and compositing. Window managers provide means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interact with the X Window System. Simpler X window managers such as dwm, ratpoison, or i3wm provide a minimalist functionality, while more elaborate window managers such as FVWM, Enlightenment, or Window Maker provide more features such as a built-in taskbar and themes, but are still lightweight when compared to desktop environments. Desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations, such as Mutter (GNOME), KWin (KDE), or Xfwm (xfce), although users may choose to use a different window manager if preferred.
Wayland is a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the X11 protocol; as of 2022[update], it has received relatively wide adoption.[85] Unlike X11, Wayland does not need an external window manager and compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the role of the display server, window manager, and compositing manager. Weston is the reference implementation of Wayland, while GNOME's Mutter and KDE's KWin are being ported to Wayland as standalone display servers. Enlightenment has already been successfully ported since version 19.[86] Additionally, many window managers have been made for Wayland, such as Sway or Hyprland, as well as other graphical utilities such as Waybar or Rofi.
Linux currently has two modern kernel-userspace APIs for handling video input devices: V4L2 API for video streams and radio, and DVB API for digital TV reception.[87]
Due to the complexity and diversity of different devices, and due to the large number of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. Also, a good userspace device library is the key to the success of having userspace applications to be able to work with all formats supported by those devices.[88][89]
Development
Simplified history of Unix-like operating systems. Linux shares similar architecture and concepts (as part of the POSIX standard) but does not share non-free source code with the original Unix or Minix.
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other components are free and open-source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.[90] Some free and open-source software licenses are based on the principle of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, the GNU General Public License (GPL), is a form of copyleft and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU Project.[91]
Linux-based distributions are intended by developers for interoperability with other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[92]SUS,[93]LSB, ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.[94][95]
Free software projects, although developed through collaboration, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger-scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.
Many Linux distributions manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package manager such as apt, yum, zypper, pacman or portage to install, remove, and update all of a system's software from one central location.[96]
A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora, and SUSE does with openSUSE.[97][98]
In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open-source projects have IRC chatrooms or newsgroups. Online forums are another means of support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the various distribution-specific support and community forums, such as ones for Ubuntu, Fedora, Arch Linux, Gentoo, etc. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.
There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often bundle cover disks that carry software or even complete Linux distributions.[99][100]
Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and free software. An analysis of the Linux kernel in 2017 showed that well over 85% of the code was developed by programmers who are being paid for their work, leaving about 8.2% to unpaid developers and 4.1% unclassified.[101] Some of the major corporations that provide contributions include Intel, Samsung, Google, AMD, Oracle, and Facebook.[101] Several corporations, notably Red Hat, Canonical, and SUSE have built a significant business around Linux distributions.
The free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.
Another business model is to give away the software to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such as CP/M, Apple DOS, and versions of the classic Mac OS before 7.6 freely copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more difficult for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturer's computer that shared the same architecture.
A common feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted at scripting, text processing and system configuration and management in general. Linux distributions support shell scripts, awk, sed and make. Many programs also have an embedded programming language to support configuring or programming themselves. For example, regular expressions are supported in programs like grep and locate, the traditional Unix message transfer agent Sendmail contains its own Turing complete scripting system, and the advanced text editor GNU Emacs is built around a general purpose Lisp interpreter.
Most distributions also include support for PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as common, Linux also supports C# and other CLIlanguages (via Mono), Vala, and Scheme. Guile Scheme acts as an extension language targeting the GNU system utilities, seeking to make the conventionally small, static, compiled C programs of Unix design rapidly and dynamically extensible via an elegant, functional high-level scripting system; many GNU programs can be compiled with optional Guile bindings to this end. A number of Java virtual machines and development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects like Kaffe and Jikes RVM; Kotlin, Scala, Groovy and other JVM languages are also available.
The Linux kernel is a widely ported operating system kernel, available for devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers; it runs on a highly diverse range of computer architectures, including ARM-based Android smartphones and the IBM Z mainframes. Specialized distributions and kernel forks exist for less mainstream architectures; for example, the ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the μClinux kernel fork may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a proprietary manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers[104][105] (with PowerPC, Intel, and Apple silicon processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.
Linux has a reputation for supporting old hardware very well by maintaining standardized drivers for a long time.[106] There are several industry associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such as FreedomHEC. Over time, support for different hardware has improved in Linux, resulting in any off-the-shelf purchase having a "good chance" of being compatible.[107]
In 2014, a new initiative was launched to automatically collect a database of all tested hardware configurations.[108]
Many quantitative studies of free/open-source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[109] The Linux market is growing, and the Linux operating system market size is expected to see a growth of 19.2% by 2027, reaching $15.64 billion, compared to $3.89 billion in 2019.[110] Analysts project a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 13.7% between 2024 and 2032, culminating in a market size of USD 34.90 billion by the latter year.[111] Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[112][113]
Desktops and laptops
According to web server statistics (that is, based on the numbers recorded from visits to websites by client devices), in October 2024, the estimated market share of Linux on desktop computers was around 4.3%. In comparison, Microsoft Windows had a market share of around 73.4%, while macOS covered around 15.5%.[30]
Web servers
W3Cook publishes stats that use the top 1,000,000 Alexa domains,[114] which as of May 2015[update] estimate that 96.55% of web servers run Linux, 1.73% run Windows, and 1.72% run FreeBSD.[115]
W3Techs publishes stats that use the top 10,000,000 Alexa domains and the top 1,000,000 Tranco domains, updated monthly[116] and as of November 2020[update] estimate that Linux is used by 39% of the web servers, versus 21.9% being used by Microsoft Windows.[117] 40.1% used other types of Unix.[118]
IDC's Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time;[119] this estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately that had Linux installed on it later.
Mobile devices
Android, which is based on the Linux kernel, has become the dominant operating system for smartphones. In April 2023, 68.61% of mobile devices accessing websites using StatCounter were from Android.[120] Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, being responsible for more than 60% of tablet sales as of 2013[update].[121] According to web server statistics, as of October 2021[update] Android has a market share of about 71%, with iOS holding 28%, and the remaining 1% attributed to various niche platforms.[122]
Film production
For years, Linux has been the platform of choice in the film industry. The first major film produced on Linux servers was 1997's Titanic.[123][124] Since then major studios including DreamWorks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital, and Industrial Light & Magic have migrated to Linux.[125][126][127] According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies use Linux.[128]
Use in government
Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. News of the Russian military creating its own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.[129] The Indian state of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers.[130][131]China uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for its Loongson processor family to achieve technology independence.[132] In Spain, some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in Andalusia. France and Germany have also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.[133] North Korea's Red Star OS, developed as of 2002[update], is based on a version of Fedora Linux.[134]
The Linux kernel is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under this license must make the originating source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.[135] Other key components of a typical Linux distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but they may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.Org implementation of the X Window System uses the MIT License.
Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3.[136][137] He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management.[138] It would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[139]
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code.[140] Using the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand person-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary means, it would have cost about US$1.82 billion[141] to develop in 2023 in the United States.[140] Most of the source code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including C++, Lisp, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[140]
In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian version 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).[142] This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have required about seventy three thousand man-years and cost US$10.2 billion[141] (in 2023 dollars) to develop by conventional means.
The name "Linux" is also used for a laundry detergent made by Swiss company Rösch.[143]
In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[14] Initially, nobody registered it. However, on August 15, 1994, William R. Della Croce Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled.[144] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux Mark Institute (LMI). Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,[145] but later changed this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[146]
The Free Software Foundation (FSF) prefers GNU/Linux as the name when referring to the operating system as a whole, because it considers Linux distributions to be variants of the GNU operating system initiated in 1983 by Richard Stallman, president of the FSF.[23][24] The foundation explicitly takes no issue over the name Android for the Android OS, which is also an operating system based on the Linux kernel, as GNU is not a part of it.
A minority of public figures and software projects other than Stallman and the FSF, notably distributions consisting of only free software, such as Debian (which had been sponsored by the FSF up to 1996),[147] also use GNU/Linux when referring to the operating system as a whole.[148][149][150] Most media and common usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many large Linux distributions (for example, SUSE Linux and Red Hat Enterprise Linux).
As of May 2011[update], about 8% to 13% of the lines of code of the Linux distribution Ubuntu (version "Natty") is made of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered part of GNU); meanwhile, 6% is taken by the Linux kernel, increased to 9% when including its direct dependencies.[151]
^util-linux is the standard set of utilities for use as part of the Linux operating system.[2]
^BusyBox is a userland written with size-optimization and limited resources in mind, used in many embedded Linux distributions. BusyBox replaces most GNU Core Utilities.[3] One notable Desktop distribution using BusyBox is Alpine Linux.[4]
^GNU is a userland used in various Linux distributions.[5][6][7] The GNU userland contains system daemons, user applications, the GUI, and various libraries. GNU Core Utilities are an essential part of most distributions. Most Linux distributions use the X Window system.[8] Other components of the userland, such as the widget toolkit, vary with the specific distribution, desktop environment, and user configuration.[9]
^Plan 9 from User Space (aka plan9port) is a port of many Plan 9 libraries and programs from their native Plan 9 environment to Unix-like operating systems, including Linux and FreeBSD.[10][11]
^Toybox is a userland that combines over 200 Unix command line utilities together into a single BSD-licensed executable. After a talk at the 2013 Embedded Linux Conference, Google merged toybox into AOSP and began shipping toybox in Android Marshmallow in 2015.[12]
^Eckert, Jason W. (2012). Linux+ Guide to Linux Certification (Third ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. p. 33. ISBN978-1111541538. Archived from the original on May 9, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2013. The shared commonality of the kernel is what defines a system's membership in the Linux family; the differing OSS applications that can interact with the common kernel are what differentiate Linux distributions.
^ ab"What is Linux?". Opensource.com. Archived from the original on May 13, 2020. Retrieved May 12, 2020.
^Barry Levine (August 26, 2013). "Linux' 22th [sic] Birthday Is Commemorated - Subtly - by Creator". Simpler Media Group, Inc. Archived from the original on May 18, 2015. Retrieved May 10, 2015. Originally developed for Intel x86-based PCs, Torvalds' "hobby" has now been released for more hardware platforms than any other OS in history.
^Ritchie, D.M. (October 1984), "The UNIX System: The Evolution of the UNIX Time-sharing System", AT&T Bell Laboratories Technical Journal, 63 (8): 1577, doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1984.tb00054.x, S2CID571269, However, UNIX was born in 1969 ...
^Eric, S. Raymond (October 1999). The Cathedral and the Bazaar. Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly & Associates, Inc. p. 12. ISBN0-596-00108-8. Archived from the original on July 18, 2022. Retrieved July 21, 2022. In 1982, a group of Unix hackers from Stanford and Berkeley founded Sun Microsystems on the belief that Unix running on relatively inexpensive 68000-based hardware would prove a winning combination for a wide variety of applications. They were right, and their vision set the pattern for an entire industry. While still priced out of reach of most individuals, workstations were cheap for corporations and universities; networks of them (one to a user) rapidly replaced the older VAXes and other time-sharing systems
^Torvalds, Linus (January 5, 1992). "Release notes for Linux v0.12". Linux Kernel Archives. Archived from the original on August 19, 2007. Retrieved July 23, 2007. The Linux copyright will change: I've had a couple of requests to make it compatible with the GNU copyleft, removing the "you may not distribute it for money" condition. I agree. I propose that the copyright be changed so that it confirms to GNU ─ pending approval of the persons who have helped write code. I assume this is going to be no problem for anybody: If you have grievances ("I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the same") mail me. Otherwise, The GNU copyleft takes effect since the first of February. If you do not know the gist of the GNU copyright ─ read it.
^Email correspondence on the Linux Kernel development mailing list Linus Torvalds (November 30, 2001). "Re: Coding style, a non-issue". kernel.org. Archived from the original on August 12, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2020.
^Raymond, Eric S. (2001). O'Reilly, Tim (ed.). The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary (Second ed.). O'Reilly & Associates. p. 16. ISBN0-596-00108-8.
^comments, 26 Jul 2018 Steve OvensFeed 151up 9. "The evolution of package managers". Opensource.com. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved May 12, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^"Get Fedora". getfedora.org. Archived from the original on July 11, 2020. Retrieved February 24, 2020.
^"Linux Mark Institute". Archived from the original on February 13, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2008. LMI has restructured its sublicensing program. Our new sublicense agreement is: Free – approved sublicense holders pay no fees; Perpetual – sublicense terminates only in breach of the agreement or when your organization ceases to use its mark; Worldwide – one sublicense covers your use of the mark anywhere in the world
^"About Debian". debian.org. December 8, 2013. Archived from the original on January 23, 2014. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
^Andrew D. Balsa; et al. (October 17, 2009). "The linux-kernel mailing list FAQ". vger.kernel.org. Archived from the original on October 1, 2012. Retrieved June 13, 2013. ...we have tried to use the word "Linux" or the expression "Linux kernel" to designate the kernel, and GNU/Linux to designate the entire body of GNU/GPL'ed OS software,... ...many people forget that the linux kernel mailing list is a forum for discussion of kernel-related matters, not GNU/Linux in general...
Teatro europeo della seconda guerra mondialeparte della seconda guerra mondialeAnimazione del teatro europeo durante la seconda guerra mondiale.In rosso: gli AlleatiIn blu: le Potenze dell'AsseIn verde: l'Unione SovieticaData1º settembre 1939 - 8 maggio 1945 LuogoEuropa CausaInvasione della Polonia EsitoVittoria finale degli Alleati SchieramentiAlleati: Unione Sovietica (dal 1941) Stati Uniti (dal 1941) Regno Unito Francia (dal 1944) Francia libera (1940-1944) Terza ...
Artikel ini bukan mengenai Stasiun Pasirbungur. Stasiun Cibungur LW09 Stasiun Cibungur, Desember 2022Lokasi Jalan Raya Cikampek–PadalarangCibungur, Bungursari, Purwakarta, Jawa BaratIndonesiaKetinggian+77 mOperatorKAI CommuterLetak dari pangkalkm 91+643 lintas Jakarta–Jatinegara–Cikampek–Purwakarta–Padalarang[1]Jumlah peron2 (satu peron sisi dan satu peron pulau yang sama-sama rendah)Jumlah jalur3 (jalur 2 dan 3: sepur lurus)Informasi lainKode stasiunCBR1401BUNGUR[2]...
У Вікіпедії є статті про інші географічні об’єкти з назвою Сентервілл. Місто Сентервіллангл. Centreville Координати 31°05′22″ пн. ш. 91°04′06″ зх. д. / 31.089611111139° пн. ш. 91.068444444472220312° зх. д. / 31.089611111139; -91.068444444472220312Координати: 31°05′22″ пн. ш. 91°04′06″&#...
British author and lecturer Laurence GardnerBorn(1943-05-17)17 May 1943UK, LondonDied12 August 2010(2010-08-12) (aged 67)NationalityBritishOccupationAuthor Laurence Gardner (17 May 1943 – 12 August 2010) was a British author and lecturer. He wrote on various topics including historical-religious speculation such as the Jesus bloodline. Biography Laurence Gardner was born in Hackney, London. He was married to Angela and they had one child together and two children from a previous marria...
Football clubJeonju MAG FCFull nameJeonju Made Axis Glory Futsal ClubFounded2009; 14 years ago (2009)GroundPalbok GroundHead coachLee Young-JinLeagueFK-League Home colours Away colours Jeonju Made Axis Glory Futsal Club, commonly known as Jeonju MAG FC (Korean: 전주 매그 FC), is a South Korean professional futsal club based in Jeonju, Jeollabuk-do. The club was founded in December 2009.[1] Honors FK-League Champions (4) : 2009–10, 2012–13, 2013�...
English official and politician The Right HonourableThe Lord EliotPersonal detailsBorn(1727-07-08)8 July 1727Died17 February 1804(1804-02-17) (aged 76)Port Eliot, CornwallResting placeSt Germans, CornwallSpouse Catherine Elliston (m. 1756) Edward Craggs-Eliot, 1st Baron Eliot (London, 8 July 1727 – 17 February 1804, Port Eliot, Cornwall) was an English official and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1748 to 1784, when he was raised to the...
Biografi ini memerlukan lebih banyak catatan kaki untuk pemastian. Bantulah untuk menambahkan referensi atau sumber tepercaya. Materi kontroversial atau trivial yang sumbernya tidak memadai atau tidak bisa dipercaya harus segera dihapus, khususnya jika berpotensi memfitnah.Cari sumber: R.B. Khatib Pahlawan Kayo – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTOR (Pelajari cara dan kapan saatnya untuk menghapus pesan templat ini) Artikel ini sudah memil...
Uang kertas 10 pound Australia (£10) adalah nilai uang kertas yang pertama kali dikeluarkan di Australia pada tahun 1913 sampai desimalisasi di mata uang Australia untuk penggantinya oleh uang kertas 20 dolar Australia pada tahun 1966. Uang kertas ini menampilkan potret di Arthur Phillip dan mantel lengan. Pranala luar (Inggris) Museum of Australian Currency Notes Diarsipkan 2011-03-12 di Wayback Machine. (Inggris) Australian stamp Diarsipkan 2009-08-04 di Wayback Machine. lbsMata uang Austr...
Municipality in Schleswig-Holstein, GermanyTodenbüttel Municipality Coat of armsLocation of Todenbüttel within Rendsburg-Eckernförde district Todenbüttel Show map of GermanyTodenbüttel Show map of Schleswig-HolsteinCoordinates: 54°8′N 9°33′E / 54.133°N 9.550°E / 54.133; 9.550CountryGermanyStateSchleswig-HolsteinDistrictRendsburg-Eckernförde Municipal assoc.Mittelholstein Government • MayorOtto HardersArea • Total11.78 km2 (4.5...
Train station served by Eurotunnel trains to the UK via the Channel Tunnel This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Eurotunnel Calais Terminal – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Calais TerminalEurotunnel Shuttle vehicle tra...
Defunct airline of Thailand (2005—2009) This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guidelines for companies and organizations. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention....
The blastpipe is part of the exhaust system of a steam locomotive that discharges exhaust steam from the cylinders into the smokebox beneath the chimney in order to increase the draught through the fire. History Diagram of a locomotive blast pipe. The Blast Pipe (a) directs exhaust steam into the smokebox (b). The steam entrains the smoke from the firebox (c), creating more draft which helps speed the smoke out the chimney (d). The primacy of discovery of the effect of directing the exhaust s...
LukunDesaNegara IndonesiaProvinsiRiauKabupatenKepulauan MerantiKecamatanTebing Tinggi TimurKode pos28753Kode Kemendagri14.10.07.2001 Luas... km²Jumlah penduduk... jiwaKepadatan... jiwa/km² Lukun merupakan salah satu desa yang ada di kecamatan Tebing Tinggi Timur, Kabupaten Kepulauan Meranti, provinsi Riau, Indonesia. Perekonomian penduduk Desa Lukun terdapat pada sektor Perkebunan dan perikanan. Pada perkebunan meliputi menyadap karet, mengolah hasil tanaman sagu dan tanaman kelapa. Se...
،الإجازة المرضية أو (أيام مرضية المدفوعة الأجر) (بالإنجليزية: Sick leave) هي إجازة من العمل والتي يمكن للعمال استخدامها خلال فترة المرض مؤقتاً للبقاء في المنزل ومعالجة صحتهم وتحقيق احتياجات السلامة دون فقدان الأجر كما يحق للعامل ضم الإجازة السنوية إلى إجازته المرضية إذا استن�...
The Lafayette-West Lafayette, Indiana Metropolitan Statistical Area, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, is an area consisting of three counties in Indiana, anchored by the cities of Lafayette and West Lafayette. As of the July 1, 2021, the MSA had an estimated population of 224,709.[1] Metro area population in 2021 is 237,130 and was 235,066 in 2020, a growth of 16% over 2010.[2] In 2010, the Lafayette, Indiana, metro area population was 210,297.[3] Countie...
Samsung Galaxy 580 Производитель Samsung Electronics Коммуникации GSM/GPRS/EDGE 850/900/1800/1900 МГц UMTS/HSDPA 900/2100 МГц Дата выпуска 15.06.2010 Форм-фактор моноблок Размеры 113,5 x 55 x 12,85 мм Масса 109 г Операционная система Android 2.1 (обновление до Android 2.2) Процессор Samsung S5P6422 667 МГц [1] ОЗУ 256 мб RAM Флеш-память 170 мб ROM Ак...
КоммунаФлеак-сюр-Сёньфр. Fléac-sur-Seugne 45°32′00″ с. ш. 0°32′00″ з. д.HGЯO Страна Франция Регион Пуату — Шаранта Департамент Шаранта Приморская Кантон Пон История и география Площадь 8,28 км²[1] Часовой пояс UTC+1:00, летом UTC+2:00 Население Население 371 человек (2010)...
Rancho Capay was a 44,388-acre (179.63 km2) Mexican land grant in present-day Tehama County and Glenn County, California given in 1844 by Governor Manuel Micheltorena to Maria Josefa Soto.[1] The name comes from the Wintun word meaning stream, and refers to Stony Creek. The grant extended two leagues in width and five leagues along the west side of the Sacramento River from Thomes Creek and Rancho Saucos on the north to Stony Creek on the south, and encompassed present day Hamilt...
1996 studio album by the Spice Girls SpiceStudio album by Spice GirlsReleased19 September 1996 (1996-09-19)Recorded1995–1996Studio Olympic (Barnes, London) Strongroom (Shoreditch, London) Genre Pop dance-pop teen pop R&B Length39:56LanguageEnglishSpanishLabelVirginProducer Absolute Matt Rowe Richard Stannard Spice Girls chronology Spice(1996) Spiceworld(1997) Singles from Spice WannabeReleased: 26 June 1996 Say You'll Be ThereReleased: 14 October 1996 2 Become 1Releas...
Jeong Do-jeonGenreDrama sejarah PolitikDitulis olehJung Hyun-minSutradaraKang Byung-taek Lee Jae-hoonPemeranCho Jae-hyun Yoo Dong-geun Seo In-seok Park Yeong-gyu Im Ho Ahn Jae-moNegara asalKorea SelatanBahasa asliKoreaJmlh. episode50ProduksiProduser eksekutifKim Hyung-ilLokasi produksiKorea SelatanDurasiSabtu dan Minggu pada pukul 21:40 (WSK)Rilis asliJaringanKBS1Rilis4 Januari (2014-01-04) –29 Juni 2014 (2014-6-29) Jeong Do-jeon (Hangul: 정도전) adalah serial te...
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