美洲原住民(英語:Indigenous peoples of the Americas)是指在前哥倫布時期已生活在北美洲、中美洲和南美洲的民族及其后裔。在距今约一萬到兩萬年前,这些族群可能从西伯利亚迁徙至美洲,并逐渐扩散到整个美洲大陆。遗传学研究证实,他们是古西伯利亞人的後裔[3]。美洲原住民並非單一民族或單一語系,而是拥有數十種以上的語系,使用至少1000種不同的語言,包括克丘亞語、艾馬拉語、瓜拉尼語、瑪雅語和納瓦特爾語等,迄今仍有数百万母语使用者。不同族群因地理环境和自然条件的差异逐渐形成了多样的語言、習俗和文化。
“克洛维斯优先理论”(Clovis first theory)认为克洛维斯文化(约在13,000年前)代表了美洲最早的人类活动。然而,前克洛维斯文化的证据将人类首次进入美洲的时间进一步提前。学界普遍认为,人类在15,000至20,000年前便已抵达劳伦泰德冰原以南的北美,而一些具有争议的证据甚至暗示,人类可能早在末次冰盛期之前、超过20,000年前就已进入美洲。
哥伦布首次遇到的原住民群体是海地的25万泰诺人,他们是大安的列斯群岛和巴哈马的主导文化。在短短三十年内,由于缺乏对欧洲疾病的免疫力,约70%的泰诺人因麻疹和天花的爆发而死亡。一场疫情在一个被奴役的非洲人营地中爆发,导致附近的泰诺人数量减半。尽管监护征赋制(Encomienda)试图采取措施保护他们,但由于强迫劳动的惩罚加重,泰诺人最终于1511年至1529年间爆发了最后一场大规模反叛(Spanish–Taíno War of San Juan–Borikén)。
与欧洲疾病的接触使北美原住民人口在欧洲人到达后的前一百年内减少了50%至67%。1617年至1619年的一次疫情中,马萨诸塞湾殖民地附近的原住民人口约90%死于天花。1633年,在奥兰治堡,当地原住民因与欧洲人接触而暴露于天花,病毒迅速消灭了整个原住民群体。到1770年代,天花导致西海岸原住民至少30%死亡。1775年至1782年和1837年的天花疫情对平原印第安人造成了毁灭性打击。1832年,美国联邦政府为原住民设立了天花疫苗接种计划(1832年印第安疫苗法,The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832)。
在 Patrick Tierney 所著的 Darkness in El Dorado 書中指出,原始部落居民不斷被現代外來文明侵擾,成為了礦工或被傳教士欺騙引誘等。[16]亞馬遜河流域的原始部落不僅人口數稀少,也面臨巴西政府的開疆計劃,壓迫其生存空間,隨著巴西軍隊的駐紮,不守規矩的士兵與部落婦女有染生下麥士蒂索人,並可能傳播現代人的疾病。
公元850年左右的持续干旱与古典期玛雅文明的衰落同时发生,而1454年的“兔子之饥荒”(the famine of One Rabbit)是墨西哥的一场重大灾难。16世纪的阿兹特克古籍记录了至少13个干旱年。近期的树木年轮研究证实了其中9个干旱日期,尤其与1454年相关的长期干旱。“兔子之年”(One Rabbit)是阿兹特克52年历法周期的第一年,民间传说认为其回归时常伴随饥荒和灾难。数据表明,在阿兹特克时代(公元882年至1558年)及之前的13个“兔子之年”中,有10个“兔子之年”之前经历了严重干旱。这一关系在统计上显著,暗示“兔子之诅咒”可能源于真实的气候因素。
从公元前一千年开始,中美洲的前哥伦布文化发展了几种独立于其他地区书写系统的原住民书写系统。卡斯卡哈尔块(Cascajal Block)可能是美洲已知的最早书写文本之一。奥尔梅克象形文字的石板经过间接测定,约可追溯到公元前900年,这一时间与奥尔梅克对圣罗伦索(San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán)的占领开始减弱相近。
扎波特克书写(Zapotec script)系统是美洲最早的书写系统之一,主要是表意文字,推测为音节式。扎波特克文字的遗留存在于一些古代建筑的铭文中,但由于现存铭文数量极少,难以全面描述其书写系统。现存的最古老的扎波特克文字例子约可追溯至公元前600年,发现于圣何塞·莫戈特(San José Mogote)的一座纪念碑上。
^Charles C. Mann. 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 2005. ISBN 9781400040063.
^ 5.05.1Timothy Pauketat. The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology. England: Oxford University Press. 2012: 86. ISBN 9780195380118.
^ 6.06.1Linda S. Cordell, Kent Lightfoot, Francis McManamon, George Milner. Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia. California: ABC-CLIO. 2008: 3. ISBN 9780313021893.
^Dyke, A.S., A. Moore, and L. Robertson, 2003, Deglaciation of North America.互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期16 February 2012. Geological Survey of Canada Open File, 1574. (Thirty-two digital maps at 1:7 000 000 scale with accompanying digital chronological database and one poster (two sheets) with full map series.)
^Jordan, David K. Prehistoric Beringia. University of California-San Diego. 2009 [April 15, 2010]. (原始内容存档于2014-02-12).
^ 17.017.1Raff, Jennifer. Origin: A Genetic History of the Americas. Grand Central Publishing. 8 February 2022: 188. ISBN 978-1-5387-4970-8(英语). "Current estimates suggest that approximately 63% of the First Peoples' ancestry comes from the East Asian group and the rest from the Ancient North Siberians. We're not sure where this interaction took place. Some archaeologists believe that it occurred in East Asia, suggesting that this is where the Siberians moved during the LGM" [...] "There's also a case to be made for this interaction having taken place bear the Lake Baikal region in Siberia from genetic evidence, too" [...] "But other archaeologists and geneticists argue that the meeting of the two grandparent populations of Native Americans occurred because people moved north, not south, in response to the LGM" 引用错误:带有name属性“Raff188”的<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次
^Pavel Flegontov, Piya Changmai, Anastassiya Zidkova, Maria D. Logacheva, N. Ezgi Altınışık, Olga Flegontova, Mikhail S. Gelfand, Evgeny S. Gerasimov, Ekaterina E. Khrameeva, Olga P. Konovalova, Tatiana Neretina, Yuri V. Nikolsky, George Starostin, Vita V. Stepanova, Igor V. Travinsky, Martin Tříska, Petr Tříska & Tatiana V. Tatarinova. Genomic study of the Ket: a Paleo-Eskimo-related ethnic group with significant ancient North Eurasian ancestry. Nature. [11-2-2016]. (原始内容存档于2016-05-03).请检查|access-date=中的日期值 (帮助)
^Zakharov, I. A., Derenko, M. V., Maliarchuk, B. A., Dambueva I. K., Dorzhu, C. M., and Rychkov, S. Y. Mitochondrial DNA variation in the aboriginal populations of the Altai-Baikal region: implications for the genetic history of North Asia and America.. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. April 2004, 1011 (1): 21–35. Bibcode:2004NYASA1011...21Z. PMID 15126280. doi:10.1196/annals.1293.003.
^Stafford, Thomas W. Chronology of the Kennewick Man skeleton (chapter 5). Douglas W. Owsley; Richard L. Jantz (编). Kennewick Man, The Scientific Investigation of an Ancient American Skeleton. Texas A&M University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-62349-200-7.
^Tokunaga, Katsushi; Ohashi, Jun; Bannai, Makoto; Juji, Takeo. Genetic link between Asians and native Americans: evidence from HLA genes and haplotypes. Human Immunology. September 2001, 62 (9): 1001–1008. PMID 11543902. doi:10.1016/S0198-8859(01)00301-9.
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