迈克尔·斯坦因劳夫(英语:Michael C. Steinlauf)写道,波兰人援助犹太人的障碍不仅来自对死刑的恐惧,还源于反犹主义使许多人不确定他们的邻居对施救会作何反应。[63]多位著者已经注意到,一些极端分子主张最终将犹太人移除出波兰,他们对犹太人的敌意造成了负面后果。[64][65][66][67]此外阿里那·卡拉(英语:Alina Cala)对波兰民间文化中的犹太人的研究指出,长久以来的传统宗教反犹太主义(英语:Christian antisemitism)以及战前和战时的反犹宣传也导致了波兰人的冷漠。[68][69]然而斯坦劳夫指出,尽管存在这些不确定因素,全国上下仍有成千上万的波兰人帮助犹太人:“犹太人大屠杀期间,波兰与犹太人关系最显著的特征不是告密或漠不关心,而是这些人的存在。”[63][68]尼查马·泰克在一群天主教波兰人的帮助下幸存下来;[70]她指出,波兰援助者施救的环境对犹太人怀有敌意,且不利于他们的保护。施救者要担心他们的邻居会不赞成,以及这种否定可能带来的报复。[71]泰克还指出,出于许多复杂和实际的原因,犹太人并没有总是准备好接受他们可以获得的援助。[72]出乎一些犹太人的意料,一些人在开战之前被他们认为表现出反犹主义态度,战时却援助了他们。[36][73]
在纳粹非长期驻军的小村庄——如冬布罗瓦日齐斯卡(英语:Dąbrowa Rzeczycka),科帕日齐斯卡(英语:Kępa Rzeczycka)和斯塔洛瓦沃拉附近的沃拉日齐斯卡(英语:Wola Rzeczycka)等地——一些犹太人能够公开参与他们社区的生活。 在2000年出版的《拯救生命:大屠杀救援的故事》(To Save a Life: Stories of Holocaust Rescue)一书中,Olga Lilien回忆称,她在战时得到塔尔诺布热格附近某个村庄的波兰家庭的庇护。尽管纳粹占领者为提供犹太人藏身线索奖励200德国马克,她仍活过了战争时期。[105]来自维斯吉特基乡(英语:Gmina Wiskitki)的Chava Grinberg-Brown在一次战后采访中回忆说,一个村民暗示打算出卖她的人身安全,便遭到了其他一些村民的暴力威胁。[106]出生于波兰的以色列作家、大屠杀幸存者Natan Gross在2001年出版的《你是谁,格里梅克先生?》(Who Are You, Mr. Grymek?)一书中写道,在华沙附近的一个村庄中,有个通敌者向纳粹报告了一个犹太人藏在哪里,结果通敌者被迫离开村子。[107]
在波兰的城市和较大的城镇,纳粹占领者创造了旨在监禁当地犹太人的隔都。德国人向隔都分配的口粮很少,让隔都的居民陷于饥饿。[114]隔都犹太人生存的唯一手段是由犹太人和波兰人有组织地将食物偷运到隔都,并从隔都对外走私货物。雅利安人区(英语:Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe)和犹太人区之间的价格差异可高达100%,但帮助犹太人会遭到死刑惩罚。有数以百计的波兰和犹太走私者出入隔都;他们通常选择在夜间或黎明时分,通过墙洞、地下隧道、下水道开口、乃至贿赂警卫队进出隔都。[115]
波兰地下国是欧洲唯一拥有广泛的地下司法系统的国家。[161]虽然受到实际情况的限制,这些地下法院的运作注重正当程序,因此可能需要数月才能通过死刑判决。[161]然而,Prekerowa指出,直到1943年9月非军事法庭才开始发布死刑判决,这意味着自1940年纳粹第一次反犹太措施以来,敲诈者已经工作好一段时间了。[162]总体而言,直到1942年底,波兰人才得以组织地下非军事法庭,使其合法化,并授予法庭对民事犯罪判处死刑的权力——如非叛国的通敌行为,以及敲诈勒索行为。[161]根据约瑟夫·克尔米什(Joseph Kermish)的说法,在被特别法院(英语:Special Courts)判处死刑,并被波兰抵抗战士冒着自身的死亡风险执行处决的数千名通敌者中,[162]很少有明确的敲诈勒索者或迫害犹太人的线人。根据克尔米什的说法,这导致一些敲诈者在他们的犯罪活动中越来越大胆。[75] Marek Jan Chodakiewicz写道,一些波兰犹太人因出卖其他犹太人而被处决。他指出,由于纳粹线人经常出卖地下组织成员和藏身的犹太人,因此通敌的指控较为宽泛,而判决则是因累积的罪行而通过的。[163]
^ 1.001.011.021.031.041.051.061.071.081.091.10Lukas (1989), p. 13,"The estimates of Jewish survivors in Poland... do not accurately reflect the extent of the Poles' enormous sacrifices on behalf of the Jews because, at various times during the occupation, there were more Jews in hiding than in the end survived."
^ 2.02.1About the Righteous: Statistics. The Righteous Among The Nations. Yad Vashem The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. 2019-06-01 [2018年7月19日].
^Jankowski, Jan; Serafinski, Antoni. Polska w liczbach = Poland in numbers. Nakl. Stowarzyszenia Prawników Polskich w Zjednoczonym Królestwie. 1941. OCLC 253451959(波兰语).
^Janusz Gumkowski & Kazimierz Leszczynski. Hitler's War; Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe. Poland under Nazi Occupation (Warsaw: Polonia Publishing House). 1961: 7–33, 164–178. (原始内容存档于2010-12-28) –通过Internet Archive, 28 December 2010.
^ 12.012.112.2Ringelblum,Kermish & Krakowski (1992),p.226"Informing and denunciation flourish throughout the country, thanks largely to the Volksdeutsche. Arrests and round-ups at every step and constant searches..."
^Headland, Ronald. Messages of murder : a study of the reports of the Einsatzgruppen of the Security Police and the Security Service, 1941-1943. Rutherford N.J. London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press Associated University Presses. 1992: 125–126. ISBN 0-8386-3418-4. OCLC 23733941.
^Niwiński, Piotr. Ponary : the Place of "Human Slaughter". Warsaw: Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu; Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, Departament Współpracy z Polonią. 2011: 25–26 [2019-06-01]. (原始内容存档于2019-05-09).
^Furth, Hans G. One million Polish rescuers of hunted Jews?. Journal of Genocide Research (Informa UK Limited). 1999, 1 (2): 227–232. ISSN 1462-3528. doi:10.1080/14623529908413952.
^Turowicz, Jerzy. Polonsky, Antony , 编. Polish reasons and Jewish reasons. My Brother's Keeper : Recent Polish Debates on the Holocaust (Routledge). 1989: 143 [2019-06-01]. ISBN 1134952104. (原始内容存档于2021-03-15). Note 2: Teresa Prekerowa estimated that approximately 1–2.5 per cent of Poles (between 160,000 and 360,000) were actively engaged in helping Jews to survive.
^Tonini, Carla. The Polish underground press and the issue of collaboration with the Nazi occupiers, 1939–1944. European Review of History: Revue europeenne d'histoire (Informa UK Limited). 2008, 15 (2): 193–205. ISSN 1350-7486. doi:10.1080/13507480801931119.
^Zajączkowski (1988), pp. 123-124, 228"In Grzegorzówka(英语:Grzegorzówka), and in Hadle Szklarskie(英语:Hadle Szklarskie) (Przeworsk County, Rzeszów Voivodeship), military police extracted from two Jewish women the names of Christian Poles helping them and other Jews – 11 Polish men were murdered. In Korniaktów forest (Łańcut County, Rzeszów Voivodeship) a Jewish woman caught in a bunker revealed the whereabouts of the Catholic family who fed her – the whole Polish family were murdered. In Jeziorko, Łowicz County(英语:Jeziorko, Łowicz County) (Warsaw Voivodeship), a Jewish man betrayed all Polish rescuers known to him – 13 Catholics were murdered by the German military police. In Lipowiec Duży(英语:Lipowiec, Biłgoraj County) (Biłgoraj County, Lublin Voivodeship), a captured Jew led the Germans to his saviors – 5 Catholics were murdered including a 6-year-old child and their farm was burned. There were other similar cases."
^Siemaszko, Władysław; Siemaszko, Ewa. Ludobójstwo dokonane przez nacjonalistów ukraińskich na ludności polskiej Wołynia, 1939–1945. Borowiecky. 2000: 363. ISBN 83-87689-34-3. OCLC 645733047(波兰语).
^Kolpanitzky, Kopel. Sentenced to life : the story of a survivor of the Lahwah ghetto. London Portland, OR: Vallentine Mitchell. 2007: 89–96. ISBN 978-0-85303-695-1. OCLC 80332812.
^Zajączkowski (1988), pp. 154-155;Weigler (1957), pp. 19-20;Ainsztein (1975), pp. 450-453;Na Rubieży (Wrocław), no. 10 (1994): pp. 10–11 (Huta Werchodudzka); Na Rubieży, no. 12 (1995): pp. 7–20 (Huta Pieniacka); Na Rubieży, no. 54 (2001): pp. 18–29.
^Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, Wystawa „Sprawiedliwi wśród Narodów Świata”– 15 czerwca 2004 r., Rzeszów. (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) "Polacy pomagali Żydom podczas wojny, choć groziła za to kara śmierci – o tym wie większość z nas." (Exhibition "Righteous among the Nations." Rzeszów, 15 June 2004. Subtitled: "The Poles were helping Jews during the war - most of us already know that.") Last actualization 8 November 2008. (波兰文)
^Augustyniak, Alicja. Godni synowie naszej ojczyzny : świadectwa nadesłane na apel Radia Maryja. Warszawa: Wydawn. Sióstr Loretanek. 2002: 161–162. ISBN 83-7257-103-1. OCLC 225566024(波兰语).
^Wewryk, Kalmen. To Sobibor and back : an eyewitness account. Montreal: Concordia University Chair in Canadian Jewish Studies and the Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies. 1999: 66–68,71. ISBN 978-0-88947-347-8. OCLC 43026127.
^Goldberg, Shiye. The Undefeated. H. Leivick Publishing House. 1985: 166–167. OCLC 144704538.
^Polonsky, Antony. Marian Małowist on History and Historians. Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry, Volume 13. London/Portland, OR: The Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. 2000: 338. ISBN 978-1-874774-47-1. OCLC 45629058.
^Singer, Gabriel. As Beasts in the Woods. Ehrlich, Elhanan (编). Sefer Staszów. Tel Aviv: Irgun Yotse-Sṭashov be-Yiśraʼel (Organization of Staszowites in Israel). 1962: xviii [2019-06-03]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-15).
^Szymańska, Zofia. Byłam tylko lekarzem.... "Pax". 1979: 149–176. ISBN 83-211-0021-X. OCLC 464665112(波兰语).;Ferderber-Salz, Bertha; Rosensaft, Menachem Z. And the sun kept shining. Holocaust Library. 1980: 199. OCLC 971390847.
^Paldiel, Mordecai. Churches and the Holocaust : unholy teaching, good samaritans, and reconciliation. Jersey City, N.J: KTAV. 2006: 209–210. ISBN 978-0-88125-908-7. OCLC 61758014.
^ 138.0138.1138.2138.3Delegatura(PDF). Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. [2019-06-03]. (原始内容(PDF)存档于2011-06-05) (英语).
^ 141.0141.1141.2Engel (1993),p. 138"The creation of the Rescue Council made the Polish government the second Allied regime – following the United States [3 months prior] – to establish an official body dedicated to assisting the remaining Jews ... the Polish government was the first to state unambiguously that the object of its rescue agency's efforts were to be Jews."另据Lerski (1944,注释1),Engel提到的“委员会”的目的仅在于协调已经在波兰长期运作的救援活动。
^Jan Karski, Poland.. The Righteous Among the Nations. The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, Yad Vashem. 2013. (原始内容存档于2013-04-25) –通过Internet Archive.参数|journal=与模板{{cite web}}不匹配(建议改用{{cite journal}}或|website=) (帮助)
^Scheib, Ronnie. The Karski Report. Variety. News, Film Reviews, Media. 2011-03-07 [2011-10-07]. (原始内容存档于2012-11-08).
^Piasecki, Waldemar. Egzamin z pamięci. [2019-06-04]. (原始内容存档于2009-01-23) (波兰语). Kiedy w lipcu 1943 roku raportował mu w Białym Domu tragedię żydowską, prezydent przerwał i zapytał polskiego emisariusza o sytuację... koni w Generalnej Guberni.
^ 155.0155.1Wronski, Stanislaw,; Zwolakowa, Maria,. Appeal signed by The Organizations of Polish Independence (Warsaw, May 1943).. Polacy i Zydzi : 1939-1945. Kiezka i Wiedza. 1971: 283. OCLC 490956489(波兰语). Polacy! [§ 5] ... wszelka bezpośrednia czy pośrednia pomoc okazywana Niemcom w ich zbrodniczej akcji jest najcięższym przestępstwem w stosunku do Polski. Każdy Polak, który współdziała z ich mordercza akcją, czy to szantażując lub denuncjując Żydów czy to wyzyskując ich okropne położenie lub uczestnicząc w grabieży, popełnia ciężką zbrodnię wobec praw Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej i będzie niezwłocznie ukarany.
Morgens, Frank. Years at the edge of existence : war memoirs, 1939-1945. Lanham, Md: University Press of America. 1996. ISBN 0-7618-0332-7. OCLC 34470964.
Moroz, Walerian Marian; Datko, Andrzej. Meczennicy za wiare 1939-1945 : duchowni i swieccy z ziem polskich, którzy przesladowani przez nazizm hitlerowski dali Chrystusowi ofiara zycia swiadectwo milosci : praca zbiorowa. Michalineum. 1996. ISBN 83-7019-133-9. OCLC 749738255(波兰语).
Polonsky, Antony. The neighbors respond : the controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-691-11306-7. OCLC 436084548.
Prekerowa, Teresa. Polonsky, Antony , 编. The Just and the Passive. My Brother's Keeper? : Recent Polish Debates on the Holocaust (Routledge). 2002 [1987] [2019-06-01]. ISBN 9781134952106. (原始内容存档于2021-03-15).
Shaiak, Gedaliah. Lowicz, a town in Mazovia : memorial book. Lowitcher Landsmanshaften. 1966. OCLC 220122148(意第绪语、希伯来语及英语).
Śliwowska, Wiktoria. The last eyewitnesses : children of the Holocaust speak. Evanston, Ill: Northwestern University Press. 1998. ISBN 0-8101-1510-7. OCLC 38130722.
Tomaszewski, Irene; Werbowski, Tecia. Zegota : the Council for Aid to Jews in Occupied Poland, 1942-45. Price-Patterson. 1999. ISBN 1-896881-15-7. OCLC 44266243.
Urynowicz, Marcin. Zbikowski, Andrzej , 编. Organized and individual Polish aid for the Jewish population exterminated by the German invader during the Second World War. Polacy i Zydzi pod okupacja niemiecka 1939-1945 : studia i materialy (Instytut Pamieci Narodowej - Komisja Scigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu). 2006. ISBN 83-60464-01-4. OCLC 836302850(波兰语).
La Machine in the streets of Liverpool, September 2008 Paul St. George's Telectroscope installation at London City Hall (May 24, 2008), linking New York City and London, produced by Artichoke Light sculptures transform Leicester Square as part of Lumiere festival 2016 Artichoke, also known as the Artichoke Trust, is a London-based British company and registered charitable trust that stages arts spectacles and live events. It was founded in 2002 by Helen Marriage, former director of the Salisb...
British manufacturer of diving equipment This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article is in list format but may read bette...
Fictional character Dr. Stephanie EdwardsGrey's Anatomy characterThe Season 12 Promotional Photo of Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie EdwardsFirst appearanceGoing, Going, Gone (9.01) September 27, 2012 (as recurring cast) Seal Our Fate (10.01) September 26, 2013(as series regular)Last appearanceRing of Fire (13.24) May 18, 2017Created byShonda RhimesPortrayed byJerrika HintonIn-universe informationFull nameStephanie EdwardsNicknameGrumpyStephDr. LavenderTitleM.D.Significant otherJackson Avery K...
Анатолій КривоножкоКривоножко Анатолій Миколайович Генерал-лейтенантЗагальна інформаціяНаціональність українецьВійськова службаПриналежність УкраїнаВид ЗС Повітряні силиФормування ПвК «Центр»Війни / битви Російсько-українська війнаКомандування 2006—2008 ...
Honest Candidate 2Poster promosiNama lainHangul정직한 후보2 Alih Aksara yang DisempurnakanJeongjikhan Hubo 2 Sutradara Jang Yu-jeong ProduserDitulis oleh Jang Yu-jeong Heo Sung-hye PemeranRa Mi-ranKim Mu-yeolSeo Hyun-wooYoon Kyung-hoPark Jin-jooPerusahaanproduksiHong FilmSoo FilmDistributorNext Entertainment WorldTanggal rilis 28 September 2022 (2022-09-28) Negara Korea Selatan Bahasa Korea PendapatankotorTemplat:Estimated US$5,9 juta[1] Honest Candidate 2 (Hangul:...
Viaduk Welwyn dilihat dari tanah Viaduk Digswell atau Viaduk Welwyn adalah sebuah viaduk kereta api yang menyeberangkan jalur kereta api East Coast Main Line melintasi Sungai Mimram di Hertfordshire, Inggris. Viaduk ini secara lokal merupakan sebuah markah tanah penting. Tempatnya berada di antara desa Welwyn dan Diggswel, tidak jauh dari stasiun kerata api Welwyn North. Bangunan ini di Inggris merupakan cagar budaya dan didaftar pada senarai Derajat II* (Grade II*).[1] Viaduk ini pan...
Klasifikasi Baltimore[1] David Baltimore, is based on the method of viral mRNA synthesis Klasifikasi Baltimore adalah sebuah sistem klasifikasi virus yang dikembangkan oleh ilmuwan Amerika Serikat David Baltimore, yang membagi virus kepada beberapa keluarga, tergantung tipe genom dan metode replikasinya. Referensi ^ Baltimore D (1971). Expression of animal virus genomes. Bacteriol Rev. 35 (3): 235–41. PMC 378387 . PMID 4329869. Pranala luar Family Groups - The ...
لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع برج الساعة (توضيح). برج الساعة (جامعة القاهرة)معلومات عامةنوع المبنى برج ساعة المنطقة الإدارية الجيزة البلد مصر المالك جامعة القاهرةأبرز الأحداثالتشييد 1937 (منذ 86 سنة)الأبعادالارتفاع 42 مترمعلومات أخرىالإحداثيات 30°01′41″N 31°12′32″E / 30.02803°...
Australian magazine For the Canadian television magazine, see TVWeek. TV WeekJanuary 2019EditorStephen DownieFormer editorsEmma Nolan, Thomas Woodgate, Amber GilesFounded1957First issue5–11 December 1957CompanyAre Media[1]CountryAustraliaLanguageEnglishWebsitewww.nowtolove.com.au/tvweek TV Week is a weekly Australian magazine that provides television program listings information and highlights, as well as television-related news. Content ranges from previews for upcoming storylines ...
Lincoln Unmasked: What You're Not Supposed to Know About Dishonest Abe AuthorThomas DiLorenzoCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishGenrePolitics, American Civil WarPublisherCrown ForumPublication dateOctober 10, 2006Media typeHardcover, Paperback, ebookPages224ISBN978-0-307-33841-9OCLC67727894Dewey Decimal973.7092 22LC ClassE457.2 .D55 2006Preceded byThe Real Lincoln: A New Look at Abraham Lincoln, His Agenda, and an Unnecessary War Lincoln Unmasked: What You're Not Supposed...
Final Piala Liga Inggris 1971TurnamenPiala Liga Inggris 1970–1971 Tottenham Hotspur Aston Villa 2 0 Tanggal27 Februari 1971StadionStadion Wembley, LondonWasitJim Finney (Hereford)Penonton100.000← 1970 1972 → Final Piala Liga Inggris 1971 adalah pertandingan final ke-11 dari turnamen sepak bola Piala Liga Inggris untuk menentukan juara musim 1970–1971. Pertandingan ini diselenggarakan pada 27 Februari 1971 di Stadion Wembley. Tottenham Hotspur memenangkan pertandingan ini denga...
British actress (born 1972) Jo HartleyHartley in 2021Born (1972-03-12) 12 March 1972 (age 51)Oldham, Lancashire, EnglandOccupationActressYears active2004–present Joanne Victoria Hartley (born 12 March 1972) is an English actress born in Oldham, Lancashire who has appeared in the films This Is England, The Young Victoria, Eddie the Eagle, Slaughterhouse Rulez and Torvill & Dean and in British television series This Is England '86, Not Safe For Work, After Life, Bliss, In My Ski...
Эта статья — о греческом математике. О городе во Франции см. Герон (Кальвадос). Герон Александрийскийдр.-греч. Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς Дата рождения около 10[1] Место рождения Александрия, Египет, Римская империя[2] Дата смерти около 75[1] Место смерти Алекса...
1996 studio album by Ian McNabbMerseybeastStudio album by Ian McNabbReleased19 April 1996Recorded1996VenueKing's College, LondonStudioRockfield Studios; Swanyard Studios, Islington, London; Parr Street Studios, LiverpoolGenrePop rock[1]Length69:27LabelThis Way UpProducerRobert Ian McNabb, Bruce Lampcov, Pete SchwierIan McNabb chronology Head Like a Rock(1994) Merseybeast(1996) A Party Political Broadcast on Behalf of the Emotional Party(1998) Singles from Merseybeast Don't Put...
Indian judge (born 1958) Krishna MurariJudge of the Supreme Court of IndiaIn office23 September 2019 – 8 July 2023Nominated byRanjan GogoiAppointed byRam Nath KovindChief Justice of the Punjab and Haryana High CourtIn office2 June 2018 – 22 September 2019Nominated byDipak MisraAppointed byRam Nath KovindPreceded byAjay Kumar Mittal (acting)Judge of the Allahabad High CourtIn office7 January 2004 – 1 June 2018Nominated byV. N. KhareAppointed byA. P. J. Abdul Ka...
У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Права человека (значения). ПравоТеория Естественные и законные права Права требования и права свободы Отрицательные и положительные права Индивидуальные и групповые права Подразделы прав человека Три поколения Гражданс...
جزء من سلسلة مقالات حولالمطبخ العربي حسب البلد الجزيرة العربية البحرين الإمارات الكويت سلطنة عمان قطر السعودية اليمن المغرب الكبير الجزائر ليبيا موريتانيا المغرب تونس الشام العراق الأردن لبنان فلسطين سوريا نهر النيل مصر السودان القرن الأفريقي جيبوتي الصومال المحيط اله...