哲学界目前认为,很难定义清楚什么是形而上学,以及哪些是形而上学研究的对象[3]。古代和中世纪的哲学家可能曾说过,形而上学就像化学或占星术一样,由其主题来定义:形而上学是研究“如此存在(being as such)”或“事物的首要原因(the first causes of things)”或“不变的事物(things that do not change)”的“科学”。 由于两个原因,不再可能用这种方式定义形而上学。 首先,一个哲学家否认那些曾经被视为构成形而上学主题的事物的存在(首要原因或不变的事物),现在将被认为是由此形成了形而上学的断言。 其次,现在有许多哲学问题被认为是形而上学的问题(或至少部分是形而上学的问题),与首要原因或不变的事物毫无关系,例如,自由意志问题或道德问题。这就提出了一个问题-是否存在将当代形而上学的问题统一起来的共同特征?《斯坦福哲学百科全书》没有能够给出回答,只是列出当代被认为是形而上学的哲学问题[3]。
文献《The Myth of the Metaphysical Circle: An Analysis of the Contemporary Crisis of the Critique of Metaphysics》[27]介绍, 对当代关于所有形而上学及其批判的辩论的考察得出的结论是,存在着捍卫它们之间不可分割的联系的总体趋势, 在这些辩论中,绝大多数辩参与者认为,对形而上学的任何反应,无论多么强大或激进,都必定会陷于形而上学的传统之中。当代占主导地位的观点是,批评实际上仍然与形而上学联系在一起,或者甚至最终会返回到形而上学的形式上, 证实了一种典型模式的持久性,即形而上学与其批评之间的循环关系. [28][29]
^metaphysics. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language 5th. 2011 [2018-11-24]. (原始内容存档于2020-03-10).
^Cohen, S. Marc. Aristotle's Metaphysics. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书). The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford, CA. [2018-11-14]. (原始内容存档于2020-03-12).
^ 3.03.13.23.33.4Metaphysics. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书). The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford, CA. [2017-05-26]. (原始内容存档于2018-09-16).
^What is it (that is, whatever it is that there is) like? Hall, Ned. David Lewis's Metaphysics. Edward N. Zalta (编). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书) Fall 2012. Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University. 2012 [2012-10-05]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-18).
^PhilPapers. The Metaphysics of Attention; Christopher Mole; In Christopher Mole, Declan Smithies & Wayne Wu (eds.), Attention: Philosophical and Psychological Essays. Oxford University Press. pp. 60–77 (2011); Authors-Christopher Mole, University of British Columbia...Abstract-This paper gives a brief presentation of adverbialism about attention, and explains some of the reasons why it gives an appealing account of attention's metaphysics
^Peter van Inwagen. metaphysics (4th ed.) Publisher: Taylor and Francis; ISBN 9780429963575. May 2018.缺少或|url=为空 (帮助)
^Chignell, Andrew; Derk Pereboom. Natural Theology and Natural Religion(Fall 2020 Edition),. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书). The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford, CA. 2020 [2020-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-07-23).
^Friederich, Simon; Evans, Peter W. Retrocausality in Quantum Mechanics. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书). The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford, CA. 2019-06-03 [2020-11-17]. (原始内容存档于2022-02-04).
^Lewis, David. Causation. The Journal of Philosophy. 1974-05-01 [2020-11-17]. (原始内容存档于2022-06-10).
^Weatherson, Brian. David Lewis. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书). The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford, CA. 2009-07-23 [2020-11-17]. (原始内容存档于2019-03-18).
^ 19.019.1Natural Theology and Natural Religion. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书). The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford, CA. [2020-07-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-07-23).
^ 20.020.120.2Peter van Inwagen. metaphysics (4th ed.) Publisher: Taylor and Francis; ISBN 9780429963575. May 2018. First, metaphysics must be distinguished from the most general and all-embracing of the physical sciences: cosmology and the physics of elementary particles. ... Secondly, metaphysics must be distinguished from sacred or revealed theology. Theology is, by definition, the science or study of God. Theology partly overlaps metaphysics. What is common to theology and metaphysics is usually called philosophical, or natural, theology. It is the remaining part of theology that is called sacred, or revealed, theology.
^ 22.022.1Murray, Michael J.; Michael Rea. Philosophy and Christian Theology (Spring 2020 Edition). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书). The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford, CA. [2021-03-25]. (原始内容存档于2021-04-01). On this way of seeing the two disciplines, if at least one of the premises of an argument is derived from revelation, the argument falls in the domain of theology; otherwise it falls into philosophy's domain. Since this way of thinking about philosophy and theology sharply demarcates the disciplines, it is possible in principle that the conclusions reached by one might be contradicted by the other.
^Coseru, Christian. Mind in Indian Buddhist Philosophy (Spring 2017 Edition). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(斯坦福哲学百科全书). The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information Stanford University Stanford, CA. [2021-03-25]. (原始内容存档于2020-04-06).