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寡核苷酸

寡核苷酸是短 DNARNA低聚物,在基因检测研究法医学方面有广泛的应用。寡核苷酸通常在实验室里通过固相化学合成法制备[1],并可以按照用户的需求合成指定序列的小片段核酸,对基因合成、聚合酶链式反应(PCR)、DNA测序分子克隆至关重要。在自然界中,寡核苷酸通常以小RNA分子的形式出现 ,在基因表达的调控中发挥作用(如microRNA[2];或者是较大核酸分子分解后的降解中间体。

寡核苷酸的特点是由构成整个分子的核苷酸残基序列决定的。寡核苷酸的长度通常用"-mer"(来自希腊语meros,"部分"的意思)来表示。例如,具有6个核苷酸(nucleotide, nt)的寡核苷酸,被称为六聚体,而一个25 nt的寡核苷酸通常被称为 "25-mer"。寡核苷酸很容易以序列互补的方式与各自的互补寡核苷酸、DNA或RNA结合形成双链体,或较少的更高级别的混合体。这一基本特性是使用寡核苷酸作为探针来检测DNA或RNA特定序列的基础。使用寡核苷酸的应用包括DNA微阵列,Southern印迹,等位基因特异性寡核苷酸分析[3]荧光原位杂交(FISH),PCR和人工基因的合成。

寡核苷酸由2'-脱氧核糖核苷酸组成,可以在骨架上或脱氧核糖的2号位进行修饰,以达到不同的药理效果。这些修饰使寡核苷酸具有新的特性,使其成为反义的关键因素[4][5]

寡核苷酸的合成

寡核苷酸是使用天然或化学修饰的受保护的核苷亚磷酰胺或在较小程度上使用非核苷化合物通过化学方法合成的。寡核苷酸链组装是按照称为“合成循环”的常规程序从 3' 到 5' 方向进行的。单个合成循环的完成使生长链添加一个核苷酸残基。一般来说,寡核苷酸序列通常很短(13-25 个nt)[6]。 合成寡核苷酸的最大长度几乎不超过 200 个核苷酸残基。 HPLC或其他方法可用于分离具有所需序列的产物。

寡核苷酸的化学修饰

合成化学稳定的短寡核苷酸是反义寡核苷酸(ASO)疗法的首个挑战。天然存在的寡核苷酸很容易被细胞内丰富的核酸酶降解[7], 短寡核苷酸序列也具有弱的内在结合力和亲和力,这有助于它们在体内降解[8]

骨架修饰

核苷酸的核苷有机硫代磷酸盐(Phosphorothioate,PS) 类似物可以使构成的寡核苷酸具备一些有利的特征。对寡核苷酸进行 PS 骨架修饰可以抵抗核酸酶的降解[10]。由于其可以在大多数核苷酸上相对容易和精准的实现,因此该策略能够被广泛的使用[9]。 此外有研究报道,寡核苷酸 5' 和 3' 端的荧光修饰可以用于评估寡核苷酸的结构、动力学和与环境的相互作用[11]

糖环修饰

另一种有利于寡核苷酸医学应用的修饰是糖环2位的羟基/氢修饰。通过2位羟基/氢的修饰可以增强寡核苷酸与靶标的结合能力从而提高寡核苷酸的有效性,在反义寡核苷酸疗法中尤为有效[8]。 这一策略还可以减少非特异性蛋白质结合,提高靶向特定蛋白质的准确性[8]。两种最常用的修饰是 2'-O-甲基和 2'-O-甲氧基乙基[8]。核碱基的荧光修饰也已经被报道[11]

反义寡核苷酸

反义寡核苷酸是与目标序列互补的DNA 或 RNA单链[6]。其中反义RNA可以与特定信使RNA(mRNA)结合,从而阻止蛋白质翻译,这一过程称为杂交[12]。 反义寡核苷酸可用于靶向特定的互补(编码或非编码)RNA。 如果发生结合,杂交体可以被RNase H酶降解 [12]。RNase H 是一种水解 RNA 的酶,用于反义寡核苷酸应用时,会导致 mRNA 表达下调 80-95%[6]

使用Morpholino反义寡核苷酸在脊椎动物中进行基因敲除,是由Janet Heasman首先使用Xenopus开发的用于研究改变的基因表达和基因功能的一项发育生物学的标准技术[13]。FDA批准的吗啉代药物包括eteplirsen和golodirsen。反义寡核苷酸也被用于抑制流感病毒在细胞系中的复制[14][15]


由单个突变蛋白引起的神经退行性疾病是反义寡核苷酸疗法的良好靶点,因为反义寡核苷酸能够以高选择性靶向和修饰非常特定的 RNA 序列[3]。 许多遗传疾病,包括亨廷顿舞蹈病阿尔茨海默病帕金森病和肌萎缩侧索硬化症,都与 DNA 改变有关,这些改变导致了不正确的RNA 序列,造成了具有毒性生理效应的错误翻译的蛋白[16]

寡核苷酸的细胞内化

寡核苷酸的细胞摄取/内化仍然是实现寡核苷酸疗法成功的最大障碍。寡核苷酸的直接内化受到聚阴离子骨架的阻碍。 寡核苷酸的细胞摄取和细胞内运输到作用地点的确切机制仍不清楚。此外,寡核苷酸结构/修饰和细胞类型的微小差异会导致细胞摄取/内化的巨大差异。细胞内化主要以能量依赖性方式(受体介导的内吞作用)进行,但不排除能量非依赖性被动扩散(=gymnosis)。 通过细胞膜后,寡核苷酸治疗剂被包裹在早期内体中,这些内体被运输到晚期内体,后者最终在低 pH 值下与含有降解酶的溶酶体融合[17]。 为了发挥其治疗功能,寡核苷酸需要在其降解之前逃离内体。直到今天,还没有通用的方法来克服递送、细胞摄取和内体逃逸的问题,但存在几种方法总是针对特定细胞[18]

将寡核苷酸疗法与负责细胞识别/摄取的实体共轭,不仅会增加摄取,而且还被认为会降低细胞摄取的难度,因为此时主要涉及一种(理想上已知的)机制[17]。 这已经通过小分子-寡核苷酸结合物实现,例如带有靶向肝细胞受体的 N-乙酰半乳糖胺[19]。这些共轭物是获得更多的细胞摄取和靶向递送的极好例子,因为相应的受体在目标细胞上过度表达,导致靶向治疗[18]。另一个广泛使用和深入研究的用于靶向递送和增加寡核苷酸细胞摄取的实体是抗体

分析技术

色谱法

烷基酰胺可用作色谱固定相[20]。这些固定相已被研究用于分离寡核苷酸[21]。离子对反相高效液相色谱法被用于分离和分析自动合成的寡核苷酸[22]

质谱

5-甲氧基水杨酸精胺的混合物可用作MALDI质谱中寡核苷酸分析的基质[23]。电喷雾电离质谱 (ESI-MS) 也是表征寡核苷酸质量的强大工具[24]

DNA微阵列

DNA 微阵列是寡核苷酸的一种有用的分析应用。与标准cDNA 微阵列相比,基于寡核苷酸的微阵列对杂交具有更好的可控特异性,并且能够测量选择性剪接或聚腺苷酸化序列的存在和普遍性[25]。 DNA微阵列的一个子类型可以被描述为高密度结合寡核苷酸的基质(尼龙、玻璃等)[26]。 DNA 微阵列在生命科学中有许多应用。

参考文献

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[3] Monga I, Qureshi A, Thakur N, Gupta AK, Kumar M (2017). "ASPsiRNA: A Resource of ASP-siRNAs Having Therapeutic Potential for Human Genetic Disorders and Algorithm for Prediction of Their Inhibitory Efficacy". G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics. 7 (9): 2931–2943. doi:10.1534/g3.117.044024. PMC 5592921. PMID 28696921.

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[8] DeVos SL, Miller TM (July 2013). "Antisense oligonucleotides: treating neurodegeneration at the level of RNA". Neurotherapeutics. 10 (3): 486–97. doi:10.1007/s13311-013-0194-5. PMC 3701770. PMID 23686823.

[9] Eckstein F (April 2000). "Phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides: what is their origin and what is unique about them?". Antisense & Nucleic Acid Drug Development. 10 (2): 117–21. doi:10.1089/oli.1.2000.10.117. PMID 10805163.

[10] Stein CA, Subasinghe C, Shinozuka K, Cohen JS (April 1988). "Physicochemical properties of phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotides". Nucleic Acids Research. 16 (8): 3209–21. doi:10.1093/nar/16.8.3209. PMC 336489. PMID 2836790.

[11] Michel BY, Dziuba D, Benhida R, Demchenko AP, Burger A (2020). "Probing of Nucleic Acid Structures, Dynamics, and Interactions With Environment-Sensitive Fluorescent Labels". Frontiers in Chemistry. 8: 112. Bibcode:2020FrCh....8..112M. doi:10.3389/fchem.2020.00112. PMC 7059644. PMID 32181238.

[12] Crooke ST (April 2017). "Molecular Mechanisms of Antisense Oligonucleotides". Nucleic Acid Therapeutics. 27 (2): 70–77. doi:10.1089/nat.2016.0656. PMC 5372764. PMID 28080221.

[13] Heasman J, Kofron M, Wylie C (June 2000). "Beta-catenin signaling activity dissected in the early Xenopus embryo: a novel antisense approach". Developmental Biology. 222 (1): 124–34. doi:10.1006/dbio.2000.9720. PMID 10885751.

[14] Kumar P, Kumar B, Rajput R, Saxena L, Banerjea AC, Khanna M (November 2013). "Cross-protective effect of antisense oligonucleotide developed against the common 3' NCR of influenza A virus genome". Molecular Biotechnology. 55 (3): 203–11. doi:10.1007/s12033-013-9670-8. PMID 23729285. S2CID 24496875.

[15] Kumar B, Khanna M, Kumar P, Sood V, Vyas R, Banerjea AC (May 2012). "Nucleic acid-mediated cleavage of M1 gene of influenza A virus is significantly augmented by antisense molecules targeted to hybridize close to the cleavage site". Molecular Biotechnology. 51 (1): 27–36. doi:10.1007/s12033-011-9437-z. PMID 21744034. S2CID 45686564.

[16] Smith RA, Miller TM, Yamanaka K, Monia BP, Condon TP, Hung G, et al. (August 2006). "Antisense oligonucleotide therapy for neurodegenerative disease". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 116 (8): 2290–6. doi:10.1172/JCI25424. PMC 1518790. PMID 16878173.

[17] Hawner, Manuel; Ducho, Christian (2020-12-16). "Cellular Targeting of Oligonucleotides by Conjugation with Small Molecules". Molecules. 25 (24): 5963. doi:10.3390/molecules25245963. ISSN 1420-3049.

[18] Crooke, S. T. (2017). "Cellular uptake and trafficking of antisense oligonucleotides". Nat. Biotechnol. 35 (3): 230–237.

[19] Prakash, Thazha P.; Graham, Mark J.; Yu, Jinghua; Carty, Rick; Low, Audrey; Chappell, Alfred; Schmidt, Karsten; Zhao, Chenguang; Aghajan, Mariam; Murray, Heather F.; Riney, Stan; Booten, Sheri L.; Murray, Susan F.; Gaus, Hans; Crosby, Jeff (July 2014). "Targeted delivery of antisense oligonucleotides to hepatocytes using triantennary N-acetyl galactosamine improves potency 10-fold in mice". Nucleic Acids Research. 42 (13): 8796–8807. doi:10.1093/nar/gku531. ISSN 1362-4962. PMC 4117763. PMID 24992960.

[20] Buszewski B, Kasturi P, Gilpin RK, Gangoda ME, Jaroniec M (August 1994). "Chromatographic and related studies of alkylamide phases". Chromatographia. 39 (3–4): 155–61. doi:10.1007/BF02274494. S2CID 97825477.

[21] Buszewski B, Safaei Z, Studzińska S (January 2015). "Analysis of oligonucleotides by liquid chromatography with alkylamide stationary phase". Open Chemistry. 13 (1). doi:10.1515/chem-2015-0141.

[22] Gilar, M.; Fountain, K. J.; Budman, Y.; Neue, U. D.; Yardley, K. R.; Rainville, P. D.; Russell Rj, 2nd; Gebler, J. C. (2002-06-07). "Ion-pair reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of oligonucleotides:: Retention prediction". Journal of Chromatography A. 958 (1–2): 167–182. doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(02)00306-0. ISSN 0021-9673. PMID 12134814.

[23] Distler AM, Allison J (April 2001). "5-Methoxysalicylic acid and spermine: a new matrix for the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry analysis of oligonucleotides". Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry. 12 (4): 456–62. Bibcode:2001JASMS..12..456D. doi:10.1016/S1044-0305(01)00212-4. PMID 11322192. S2CID 18280663.

[24] Shah S, Friedman SH (March 2008). "An ESI-MS method for characterization of native and modified oligonucleotides used for RNA interference and other biological applications". Nature Protocols. 3 (3): 351–6. doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.535. PMID 18323805. S2CID 2093309.

[25] Relógio A, Schwager C, Richter A, Ansorge W, Valcárcel J (June 2002). "Optimization of oligonucleotide-based DNA microarrays". Nucleic Acids Research. 30 (11): 51e–51. doi:10.1093/nar/30.11.e51. PMC 117213. PMID 12034852.

[26] Gong P, Harbers GM, Grainger DW (April 2006). "Multi-technique comparison of immobilized and hybridized oligonucleotide surface density on commercial amine-reactive microarray slides". Analytical Chemistry. 78 (7): 2342–51. doi:10.1021/ac051812m. PMID 16579618.

基因芯片有多种载体(玻璃尼龙等),在这种芯片上,有高密度的寡核苷酸,可以对基因进行形态研究,基因轉譯表現研究可确诊某些疾病。

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American college football season 2012 North Texas Mean Green footballConferenceSun Belt ConferenceRecord4–8 (3–5 Sun Belt)Head coachDan McCarney (2nd season)Offensive coordinatorMike Canales (3rd season)Offensive schemePro-styleDefensive coordinatorJohn Skladany (1st season)Base defense4–3Home stadiumApogee Stadium(Capacity: 30,850)Seasons← 20112013 → 2012 Sun Belt Conference football standings vte Conf Overall Team   W   L …

This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Iran Slogan of the Year – news · newspapers · b…

2017 Indian filmHoney Bee 2.5Directed byShyju AnthikkadScreenplay byShyju AnthikkadStory byLalProduced byLalStarringAskar Ali Lijomol JoseMusic byDeepak Dev & A M JoseProductioncompanyLal CreationsRelease date 18 August 2017 (2017-08-18) CountryIndiaLanguageMalayalam HoneyBee 2.5 is a 2017 Malayalam language romantic drama film produced by Lal under the banner of Lal Creations. The film stars Askar Ali and Lijo Mol Jose in the lead roles along with Asif Ali, Lal, Bhavana, Lena…

2014 American comedy-drama television series LookingGenreComedy dramaCreated byMichael LannanBased onLorimerby Michael LannanStarring Jonathan Groff Frankie J. Alvarez Murray Bartlett Lauren Weedman Russell Tovey Raúl Castillo Country of originUnited StatesOriginal languageEnglishNo. of seasons2No. of episodes18 plus special (list of episodes)ProductionExecutive producers Michael Lannan David Marshall Grant Sarah Condon Andrew Haigh ProducerKat LandsbergProduction locationSan FranciscoCinematog…

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