叶尼塞语系

叶尼塞语系
使用族群叶尼塞民族
地理分佈西伯利亚中叶尼塞河
历史上曾占据西伯利亚大部及蒙古
谱系学分类德內-葉尼塞語系?
  • 叶尼塞语系
原始語言原始叶尼塞语
分支
北 (凯特-尤格语族)
南 (阿林-科特语族) †
–
Glottologyeni1252[1]

叶尼塞语系各语言的分布（1600）

叶尼塞语系（Yeniseic），又称叶尼塞-奥斯佳克语系（Yenisei-Ostyak[notes 1]）是分布在西伯利亚中部叶尼塞河流域的一个语系。作为拟议的德内–叶尼塞语系的一部分，叶尼塞语系被认为是“首次证明新旧大陆语系存在符合传统比较-历史语言学标准的语系关系”的一部分。[2]目前仅存的叶尼塞语是凯特语。

有人认为水名学和遗传学数据说明，叶尼塞语在古代曾在更大的区域内使用，包括中国北部和蒙古的部分地区。[3]还有人认为，17世纪来记录的叶尼塞语分布代表了相对较近的北迁，叶尼塞语的原乡位于贝加尔湖以南。[4]

叶尼塞人与匈奴可能有联系，匈奴贵族可能说一种类似于旁普科尔语的南叶尼塞语支语言。[5]根据语言学和民族地理学资料，建立了后赵的羯人可能说一种类似于旁普科尔语的语言。[6]

匈奴语为突厥语系和蒙古语系贡献了大量借词，有可能最终来自叶尼塞语，如“汗”“可汗”“答剌罕”“腾格里”等等。[7]这一结论主要分析自汉语文献中记录的匈奴语。

介绍

参见：旁叶尼塞语支
  • 原始叶尼塞语（500 BC之前；元年左右分裂）[8]
    • 北叶尼塞语支（700左右分裂）
    • 南叶尼塞语支†
      • 科特–阿桑（1200左右分裂）
      • 阿林–旁普科爾（550左右分裂）

据推测，匈奴语和匈人语可能属于南叶尼塞语支。尤格语、旁普科爾語、阿林語和阿桑語早在18世纪消亡，科特語在19世纪末消亡，雅斯京语、雅林语、拜科特语则更早消亡。只能从17世纪的毛皮税记录中确定其属于叶尼塞语系，但除了部分专名外，其语言已荡然无存。芬兰语言学家Castrén发表了详细的语法和词典。尤格語在1960年代绝种，俄国学者Werner对这种语言进行了深入的研究，发表了词典、语法和传统故事。如今只有凯特語还在使用中，约有1000个左右的老人懂这种语言。

分布

凯特语是现存唯一的叶尼塞语，也是已知的最北端的叶尼塞语。据史料记载，在俄罗斯征服西伯利亚的同时，凯特语沿叶尼塞河向北扩展。[9]如今，克特语主要在西伯利亚最北部的克拉斯诺亚尔斯克边疆区图鲁汉斯克区的Kellog和Sulomay等村庄使用。叶尼塞斯克到Vorogovo、Yartsevo、克季河上游一带，曾分布着最近才消亡的尤格语。

可以构拟阿林语、旁普科尔语、科特语和阿桑语在现代早期的分布。阿林语分布在克拉斯诺亚尔斯克以北，与其关系密切的旁普科尔语则分布在其以北以西的克季河上游。科特语和阿桑语是另一对关系密切的语言，分布在克拉斯诺亚尔斯克以南、坎河以东的地区。[10]从地名可以看出，叶尼塞人可能居住在布里亚特共和国、外贝加尔边疆区和蒙古国北部。例如，外贝加尔边疆区可见地名ši，可能与原始叶尼塞语sēs“河”有关，可能来自一种未被记载的叶尼塞语。看上去像叶尼塞语的地名甚至延伸到黑龙江。[4]

Václav Blažek根据水名数据认为，叶尼塞语曾分布在更远的西部，例如更西部的河名šet可能也来自原始叶尼塞语sēs“河”。[11]

起源与历史

据亚历山大·沃文的说法，匈奴境内有叶尼塞语人群。
参见：原始叶尼塞语

根据一份2016年的研究，叶尼塞语人群及其语言可能源于阿尔泰山脉或贝加尔湖附近，叶尼塞人与古爱斯基摩人有关。[12]叶尼塞人可能还是从白令陆桥回迁的代表，德内-叶尼塞语门则是白令陆桥外人口辐射的结果。[13]

爱德华·瓦伊达在西伯利亚观察到，环北极地区的叶尼塞语水名系统明显重叠在早期的乌戈尔语、萨摩耶德语、突厥语和通古斯语上。因此，有人提出叶尼塞语原乡当位于贝加尔湖、蒙古北部和上叶尼塞盆地之间，瓦伊达称其为被叶尼塞语先民“遗弃”的地区。[4]另一方面，Václav Blažek (2019)则根据水名证据认为，叶尼塞语最初分布在天山山脉和帕米尔高原北坡，后来沿额尔齐斯河顺流北上。[11]

因此，西伯利亚中北部的现代叶尼塞人并非原住民，而是最近才北迁的。俄罗斯探险家在西伯利亚注意到了这一点：据记载，从17世纪起，凯特人沿叶尼塞河向北扩展，从叶洛圭河到库列伊卡河。[9]根据这些记录，现代凯特语似乎代表了叶尼塞迁徙的最北端。 北迁可能与匈奴的衰落有关。从汉语文献来看，叶尼塞语可能是匈奴中重要的少数民族，[14]但由于资料缺乏，这些观点很难得到证实。[15][16]

亚历山大·沃文认为，至少部分匈奴人（可能是贵族、统治阶级）说叶尼塞语。[5]他认为与突厥语相比，匈奴语同叶尼塞语的相似程度更高；他还赞扬了Stefan Georg的工作，即论证“腾格里”（突厥语和蒙古语中的“天”>“神”）如何源于原始叶尼塞语tɨŋVr。[7]

还有人认为，叶尼塞语匈奴精英在西迁中经历了向乌古尔语支的语言替换，最终成为匈人。不过，也有人认为匈奴语的核心的叶尼塞语。[17]

爱德华·瓦伊达 (et al. 2013)提出，匈人的统治精英说的是一种叶尼塞语，并影响了当地的其他语言。[3]

建立后赵的羯族的语言似乎与叶尼塞语一致。[5]后来的研究表明，与凯特语等相比，羯语更接近旁普科尔语。[6]瓦伊达用地理数据证实，蒙古北部的叶尼塞语水名完全是旁普科尔语，从而证明了叶尼塞语和羯语在语言和地理上的接近性。

在俄罗斯征服西伯利亚开始后，南叶尼塞语支的衰落可能由于阿林语和旁普科尔语向哈卡斯语及楚利姆语发生了转移，科特语和阿桑语也向哈卡斯语发生了转移。[10]

语系特征

叶尼塞语同西伯利亚语支南部语群、萨摩耶德语支与鄂温克语共享很多区域特征，包括远距离鼻音和谐、古塞擦音变为塞音、后置介词或附着语素作补语从句等。[18]叶尼塞语的名词性附着语素与地理上相邻的语系的语法格系统非常相似。叶尼塞语在西伯利亚语言中也比较独特，如声调、前缀式动词屈折与高度复杂的词法音位学变化。[19]

据描述，叶尼塞语最多有4个声调，最少没有声调。这些“声调”与声门化、元音长度和气声同时出现，与尚未发展出声调的上古汉语的情形极其相似。叶尼塞语的动词形态非常复杂。

人称代词
北支 南支
凯特语 尤格语 科特-阿桑 阿林-旁普科尔
科特语方言 阿桑语 阿林语 旁普科尔语
1单 āˑ(t) āt ai aj ai ad
2单 ūˑ ū au au au u
3单 būˑ bū uju ~ hatu（阳）
uja ~ hata（阴）		 bari au adu
1复 ɤ̄ˑt ~ ɤ́tn ɤ́tn ajoŋ ajuŋ aiŋ adɨŋ
2复 ɤ́kŋ kɤ́kŋ auoŋ ~ aoŋ avun aŋ ajaŋ
3复 būˑŋ béìŋ uniaŋ ~ hatien hatin itaŋ ?

下表展现了叶尼塞语系的数词及构拟的尝试：[20]

数词
词义 北支 南支 构拟
凯特语方言 尤格语 科特-阿桑 阿林-旁普科尔
SK 科特语 阿桑语 阿林语 旁普科尔语 Starostin
1 qūˑs χūs huːtʃa hutʃa qusej xuta *xu-sa
2 ɯ̄ˑn ɯ̄n iːna ina kina hinɛaŋ *xɨna
3 dɔˀŋ dɔˀŋ toːŋa taŋa tʲoŋa ~ tʲuːŋa dóŋa *doʔŋa
4 sīˑk sīk tʃeɡa ~ ʃeːɡa ʃeɡa tʃaɡa ziang *si-
5 qāˑk χāk keɡa ~ χeːɡa keɡa qala hejlaŋ *qä-
6 aˀ ~ à àː χelutʃa ɡejlutʃa ɨɡa aɡɡɛaŋ *ʔaẋV
7 ɔˀŋ ɔˀŋ χelina ɡejlina ɨnʲa onʲaŋ *ʔoʔn-
10 qɔ̄ˑ χɔ̄ haːɡa ~ haɡa xaha qau ~ hioɡa hajaŋ *ẋɔGa
20 ɛˀk ɛˀk iːntʰukŋ inkukn kinthjuŋ hédiang *ʔeʔk ~ xeʔk
100 kiˀ kiˀ ujaːx jus jus útamssa *kiʔ ~ ɡiʔ / *ʔalVs-(tamsV)

下表是另外一些基础词及构拟的尝试：[20]

其他词汇
词义 北支 南支 构拟
凯特语方言 尤格语 科特-阿桑 阿林-旁普科尔
SK NK CK 科特语 阿桑语 阿林语 旁普科尔语 Vajda Starostin Werner
落叶松 sɛˀs sɛˀs šɛˀš sɛˀs šet čet čit tag *čɛˀç *seʔs *sɛʔt / *tɛʔt
河 sēˑs sēˑs šēˑš sēs šet šet sat tat *cēˑc *ses *set / *tet
石 tʌˀs tʌˀs tʌˀš čʌˀs šiš šiš kes kit *cʰɛˀs *čɨʔs *t'ɨʔs
手指 tʌˀq tʌˀq tʌˀq tʌˀχ tʰoχ ? intoto tok *tʰɛˀq *tǝʔq *thǝʔq
树脂 dīˑk dīˑk dīˑk dʲīk čik ? ? ? *čīˑk *ǯik (~-g, -ẋ) *d'ik
狼 qɯ̄ˑt qɯ̄ˑti qɯ̄ˑtə χɯ̄ˑt (boru ← 突厥语) qut xotu *qʷīˑtʰi *qɨte (˜ẋ-) *qʌthǝ
冬 kɤ̄ˑt kɤ̄ˑti kɤ̄ˑte kɤ̄ˑt keːtʰi ? lot lete *kʷeˑtʰi *gǝte *kǝte
光 kʌˀn kʌˀn kʌˀn kʌˀn kin ? lum ? *kʷɛˀn *gǝʔn- ?
人 kɛˀd kɛˀd kɛˀd kɛˀtʲ hit het kit kit *kɛˀt *keʔt ?
2 ɯ̄ˑn ɯ̄ˑn ɯ̄ˑn ɯ̄n in in kin hin *kʰīˑn *xɨna *(k)ɨn
水 ūˑl ūˑl ūˑl ūr ul ul kul ul *kʰul *qoʔl (~ẋ-, -r)  ?
桦木 ùs ùːse ùːsə ùːʰs uča uuča kus uta *kʰuχʂa *xūsa *kuʔǝt'ǝ
雪橇 súùl súùl šúùl sɔ́ùl  čogar  čɛgar šal tsɛl *tsehʷəl      *soʔol *sogǝl (~č/t'-ʎ) 

与其他语系的可能关系

2008年之前，很少有语言学家认为叶尼塞语和其他语系有什么关系，有人认为叶尼塞语同欧亚大陆的大多数作通型配列语言有遥远的联系。

德内-叶尼塞语门

主条目：德内-叶尼塞语门

2008年，西华盛顿大学的爱德华·瓦伊达提出了叶尼塞语同北美洲纳-德内语系的发生关系。[21]在论文发表时（2010），很多纳-德内语和叶尼塞语专家都对这份工作给予了积极的评价。[22]贾雷德·戴蒙德对论文集的批判性评论[23]和2011年末瓦伊达的回复[24]，清楚地表明这问题到目前仍不是定论。2011年，Keren Rice和贾雷德·戴蒙德还发表了另外两篇关于该论文集的评论。

卡拉苏克语系

主条目：卡拉苏克语系

卡拉苏克假说将叶尼塞语同布鲁夏斯基语联系在一起。A.P. Dulson[25]和V.N. Toporov[26]等人提出了这一观点。目前最著名的卡拉苏克假说倡导者无我推测，布鲁绍人是印欧人征服印度河流域后，从中亚迁徙出的一部分。[27]

汉藏语系

主条目：汉藏语系

Tailleur[28]和Werner[29]指出，M.A. Castrén (1856)、James Byrne (1892)、G.J. Ramstedt (1907)等最早提出的一些关于叶尼塞人群遗传关系的论文认为，叶尼塞语是汉藏语系的北亲。Kai Donner[30]和Karl Bouda后来也重新提出了这些观点。[31]一份2008年的研究进一步证实了叶尼塞语和汉藏语之间可能存在的关系，并举了几个可能的同源词。[32]高晶一 (2014)发现了12个同源的汉藏语-叶尼塞语基本词，并认为这些词不可能是由一方借入另一方的。[33]爱德华·萨丕尔也提出了纳-德内语系与汉藏语系之间的关系，即“汉德内语系”。他大约在1920年开始相信，纳-德内语同汉藏语的关系比其他美洲语系更接近。[34]爱德华·瓦伊达提出的德内-叶尼塞语系再次引起了语言学家的兴趣，如Geoffrey Caveney (2014)，研究了支持汉-德内假说的证据。

德内–高加索语系

主条目：德内–高加索语系

Bouda在20世纪30年代到50年代的各种文献中描述了一个语言网络，除了叶尼塞语和汉藏语还包括北高加索语系和布鲁夏斯基语，其中一些形式被称作“汉-高加索语”。R. Bleichsteiner[35]、O.G. Tailleur[36]、已故的斯塔罗斯金[37]和Sergei L. Nikolayev[38]等人的著作中都有关于这些联系的记载。J.D. Bengtson、[39]V. Blažek、[40]约瑟·哈罗德·格林伯格、[41]M. Ruhlen[42]等人也提出了这一假说，并常将其扩展到德内–高加索语。George Starostin继承了其父在叶尼塞语、汉-高加索语和其他领域的工作。[43] 这一理论在其他语言学家那里很有争议，或被视为过时的理论。[44][45][46]

相关条目

注释

  1. ^ “奥斯佳克”是个语言地理学概念，而非语系关系系属。其在叶尼塞语系之外还增加了乌拉尔语系的汉特语和谢尔库普语。

参考文献

  1. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (编). Yeniseian. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. 2016. 
  2. ^ Bernard Comrie (2008) "Why the Dene-Yeniseic Hypothesis is Exciting". Fairbanks and Anchorage, Alaska: Dene-Yeniseic Symposium.
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Vajda, Edward J. (2013). Yeniseian Peoples and Languages: A History of Yeniseian Studies with an Annotated Bibliography and a Source Guide. Oxford/New York: Routledge.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Vajda, Edward. Yeniseian and Dene Hydronyms (PDF). Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication: 183–201. [2023-11-15]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-02-20）. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Vovin, Alexander. "Did the Xiongnu speak a Yeniseian language?". Central Asiatic Journal 44/1 (2000), pp. 87–104.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 Vovin, Alexander; Vajda, Edward J.; de la Vaissière, Etienne. Who were the *Kyet (羯) and what language did they speak?. Journal Asiatique. 2016, 304 (1): 125–144 [2023-11-15]. （原始内容存档于2022-02-19）. 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Vovin, Alexander. Did the Xiong Nu Speak a Yeniseian Language?. Central Asiatic Journal. 2000, 44 (1) [2023-11-15]. （原始内容存档于2022-01-26） （英语）. 
  8. ^ Vadja 2007
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 Georg, Stefan. The Gradual Disappearance of a Eurasian Language Family. Language Death and Language Maintenance: Theoretical, Practical and Descriptive Approaches. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. January 2003, 240: 89 [2023-11-15]. ISBN 978-90-272-4752-0. doi:10.1075/cilt.240.07geo. （原始内容存档于2023-04-08） （英语）. 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Vajda, Edward J. Languages and Prehistory of Central Siberia. John Benjamins Publishing. 2004-01-01. ISBN 978-90-272-4776-6 （英语）. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Blažek, Václav. Toward the question of Yeniseian homeland in perspective of toponymy (PDF). [2023-11-15]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-09-21）. 
  12. ^ Flegontov, Pavel; Changmai, Piya; Zidkova, Anastassiya; Logacheva, Maria D.; Altınışık, N. Ezgi; Flegontova, Olga; Gelfand, Mikhail S.; Gerasimov, Evgeny S.; Khrameeva, Ekaterina E. Genomic study of the Ket: a Paleo-Eskimo-related ethnic group with significant ancient North Eurasian ancestry. Scientific Reports. 2016-02-11, 6: 20768. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620768F. PMC 4750364 可免费查阅. PMID 26865217. arXiv:1508.03097 可免费查阅. doi:10.1038/srep20768. 
  13. ^ Sicoli, Mark A.; Holton, Gary. Linguistic Phylogenies Support Back-Migration from Beringia to Asia. PLOS ONE. 2014-03-12, 9 (3): e91722. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...991722S. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3951421 可免费查阅. PMID 24621925. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091722 可免费查阅. 
  14. ^ See Vovin 2000, Vovin 2002 and Pulleyblank 2002
  15. ^ See Vajda 2008a
  16. ^ Sinor, Denis. 23.4 The Xiongnu Empire. Herrmann, J.; Zürcher, E. (编). History of Humanity. Multiple History. III: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D. UNESCO. 1996: 452. ISBN 978-92-3-102812-0. 
  17. ^ E. G. Pulleyblank, "The consonontal system of old Chinese" [Pt 1], Asia Major, vol. IX (1962), pp. 1–2.
  18. ^ See Anderson 2003
  19. ^ Georg, Stefan. Yeniseic languages and the Siberian linguistic area. Evidence and Counter-Evidence. Festschrift Frederik Kortlandt. Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics 33. Amsterdam / New York: Rodopi. 2008: 151–168. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 See Vajda 2007, Starostin 1982 and Werner (???)
  21. ^ See Vajda 2010
  22. ^ Language Log » The languages of the Caucasus. [2023-11-15]. （原始内容存档于2023-07-09）. 
  23. ^ Lyle Campbell, 2011, "Review of The Dene-Yeniseian Connection (Kari and Potter)," International Journal of American Linguistics 77:445–451. "In summary, the proposed Dene-Yeniseian connection cannot be embraced at present. The hypothesis is indeed stimulating, advanced by a serious scholar trying to use appropriate procedures. Unfortunately, neither the lexical evidence (with putative sound correspondences) nor the morphological evidence adduced is sufficient to support a distant genetic relationship between Na-Dene and Yeniseian." (pg. 450).
  24. ^ Edward Vajda, 2011, "A Response to Campbell," International Journal of American Linguistics 77:451–452. "It remains incumbent upon the proponents of the DY hypothesis to provide solutions to at least some of the unresolved problems identified in Campbell's review or in DYC itself. My opinion is that every one of them requires a convincing solution before the relationship between Yeniseian and Na-Dene can be considered settled." (pg. 452).
  25. ^ See Dulson 1968
  26. ^ See Toporov 1971
  27. ^ See Van Driem 2001
  28. ^ See Tailleur 1994
  29. ^ See Werner 1994
  30. ^ See Donner 1930
  31. ^ See Bouda 1963 and Bouda 1957
  32. ^ Sedláček, Kamil. The Yeniseian Languages of the 18th Century and Ket and Sino-Tibetan Word Comparisons. Central Asiatic Journal. 2008, 52 (2): 219–305 [2023-11-15]. ISSN 0008-9192. JSTOR 41928491. S2CID 163603829. doi:10.13173/CAJ/2008/2/6. （原始内容存档于2023-04-08）. 
  33. ^ 高晶一. 確定夏國及凱特人的語言為屬於漢語族和葉尼塞語系共同詞源. Central Asiatic Journal. 2017, 60 (1–2): 51–58 [2023-11-15]. ISSN 0008-9192. JSTOR 10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. S2CID 165893686. doi:10.13173/centasiaj.60.1-2.0051. （原始内容存档于2023-10-27）. 
  34. ^ Ruhlen, Merritt. The origin of the Na-Dene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 1998-11-10, 95 (23): 13994–13996. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9513994R. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 25007 可免费查阅. PMID 9811914. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 可免费查阅 （英语）. 
  35. ^ See Bleichsteiner 1930
  36. ^ See Tailleur 1958 and Tailleur 1994
  37. ^ See Starostin 1982, Starostin 1984, Starostin 1991, Starostin & Ruhlen 1994
  38. ^ See Nikola(y)ev 1991
  39. ^ See Bengtson 1994, Bengtson 1998, Bengtson 2008
  40. ^ See Blažek & Bengtson 1995
  41. ^ See Greenberg & Ruhlen, Greenberg & Ruhlen 1997
  42. ^ See Ruhlen 1997, Ruhlen 1998a, Ruhlen 1998b
  43. ^ See Reshetnikov & Starostin 1995a, Reshetnikov & Starostin 1995b, Dybo & Starostin
  44. ^ Trask, R. L. (2000). The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pg. 85
  45. ^ Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. New York: Columbia University Press. pg. 434
  46. ^ Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie. Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. Routledge. 2008-07-25 [2023-11-15]. ISBN 9781134149629. （原始内容存档于2024-05-23） （英语）. 

书目

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  • BENGTSON, John D. (1998). Caucasian and Sino-Tibetan: A Hypothesis of S. A. Starostin. General Linguistics, Vol. 36, no. 1/2, 1998 (1996). Pegasus Press, University of North Carolina, Asheville, North Carolina.
  • BENGTSON, John D. (1998). Some Yenisseian Isoglosses. Mother tongue IV, 1998.
  • BENGTSON, J.D. (2008). Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages.（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） In Aspects of Comparative Linguistics, v. 3., pp. 45-118. Moscow: RSUH Publishers.
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  • BLEICHSTEINER, Robert. (1930). "Die werschikisch-burischkische Sprache im Pamirgebiet und ihre Stellung zu den Japhetitensprachen des Kaukasus [The Werchikwar-Burushaski language in the Pamir region and its position relative to the Japhetic languages of the Caucasus]." Wiener Beiträge zur Kunde des Morgenlandes 1: 289-331.
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  • BOUDA, Karl. (1957). Die Sprache der Jenissejer. Genealogische und morphologische Untersuchungen [The language of the Yeniseians. Genealogical and morphological investigations]. Anthropos 52.1-2: 65-134.
  • DONNER, Kai. (1930). Über die Jenissei-Ostiaken und ihre Sprache [About the Yenisei ostyaks and their language]. Journal de la Société Finno-ougrienne 44.
  • VAN DRIEM, George. (2001). The Languages of the Himalayas. Leiden: Brill.
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  • DYBO, Anna V., STAROSTIN G. S. (2008). In Defense of the Comparative Method, or the End of the Vovin Controversy.（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） // Originally in: Aspects of Comparative Linguistics, v. 3. Moscow: RSUH Publishers, pp. 109-258.
  • GEORG, Stefan. (2007). A Descriptive Grammar of Ket (Yenisei-Ostyak)[失效連結], Volume I: Introduction, Phonology, Morphology, Folkestone/Kent: Global Oriental. ISBN 1-901903-58-3; ISBN 978-1-901903-58-4
  • GREENBERG, J.H., and M. Ruhlen. (1992). Linguistic Origins of Native Americans. Scientific American 267.5 (November): 94–99.
  • GREENBERG, J.H., and M. Ruhlen. (1997). L'origine linguistique des Amérindiens[The linguistic origin of the Amerindians]. Pour la Science (Dossier, October), 84–89.
  • KAYE, A.S. (1992). Distant genetic relationship and Edward Sapir. Semiotica 91.3/4: 273-300.
  • NIKOLA(Y)EV, Sergei L. (1991). Sino-Caucasian Languages in America. In Shevoroshkin (1991): 42-66.
  • PULLEYBLANK, Edwin G. (2002). Central Asia and Non-Chinese Peoples of Ancient China (Collected Studies, 731).
  • RESHETNIKOV, Kirill Yuriy; STAROSTIN, George S. (1995). The Structure of the Ket Verbal Form.（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） // Originally in: The Ket Volume (Studia Ketica), v. 4. Moscow: Languages of Russian Culture, pp. 7-121.
  • RESHETNIKOV, Yuriy Kirill; STAROSTIN, George S. (1995). Morphology of the Kott Verb and Reconstruction of the Proto-Yeniseian Verbal System.（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） // Originally in: The Ket Volume (Studia Ketica), v. 4. Moscow: Languages of Russian Culture, pp. 122-175.
  • RUHLEN, M. (1997). Une nouvelle famille de langues: le déné-caucasien [A new language family: Dene-Caucasian]. Pour la Science (Dossier, October) 68–73.
  • RUHLEN, Merritt. (1998a). Dene-Caucasian: A New Linguistic Family. In The Origins and Past of Modern Humans – Towards Reconciliation, ed. by Keiichi Omoto and Phillip V. Tobias, Singapore, World Scientific, 231–46.
  • RUHLEN, Merritt. (1998b). The Origin of the Na-Dene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95: 13994–96.
  • RUBICZ, R., MELVIN, K.L., CRAWFORD, M.H. 2002. Genetic Evidence for the phylogenetic relationship between Na-Dene and Yeniseian speakers. Human Biology, Dec 1 2002 74 (6) 743-761
  • SAPIR, Edward. (1920). Comparative Sino-Tibetan and Na-Dené Dictionary. Ms. Ledger. American Philosophical Society Na 20a.3. (Microfilm)
  • SHAFER, Robert. (1952). Athapaskan and Sino-Tibetan. International Journal of American Linguistics 18: 12-19.
  • SHAFER, Robert. (1957). Note on Athapaskan and Sino-Tibetan. International Journal of American Linguistics 23: 116-117.
  • STACHOWSKI, Marek (1996). Über einige altaische Lehnwörter in den Jenissej-Sprachen. In Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 1: 91-115.
  • STACHOWSKI, Marek (1997). Altaistische Anmerkungen zum “Vergleichenden Wörterbuch der Jenissej-Sprachen”. In Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 2: 227-239.
  • STACHOWSKI, Marek (2004). Anmerkungen zu einem neuen vergleichenden Wörterbuch der Jenissej-Sprachen. In Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 9: 189-204.
  • STACHOWSKI, Marek (2006a). Arabische Lehnwörter in den Jenissej-Sprachen des 18. Jahrhunderts und die Frage der Sprachbünde in Sibirien. In Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis 123 (2006): 155-158.
  • STACHOWSKI, Marek (2006b). Persian loan words in 18th century Yeniseic and the problem of linguistic areas in Siberia. In A. Krasnowolska / K. Maciuszak / B. Mękarska (ed.): In the Orient where the Gracious Light... [Festschrift for A. Pisowicz], Kraków: 179-184.
  • (STAROSTIN, Sergei A.) Старостин, Сергей А. (1982). Праенисейская реконструкция и внешние связи енисейских языков（页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） [A Proto-Yeniseian reconstruction and the external relations of the Yeniseian languages]. In: Кетский сборник, ed. Е.А. Алексеенко (E.A. Alekseenko). Leningrad: Nauka, 44-237.
  • (STAROSTIN, Sergei A.) Старостин, Сергей А. (1984). Гипотеза о генетических связях сино-тибетских языков с енисейскими и северокавказскими языками [A hypothesis on genetic relations of the Sino-Tibetan languages to the Yeniseian and the North Caucasian languages]. In: Лингвистическая реконструкция и древнейшая история Востока [Linguistic reconstruction and the prehistory of the East], 4: Древнейшая языковая ситуация в восточной Азии [The prehistoric language situation in eastern Asia], ed. И. Ф. Вардуль (I.F. Varduľ) et al. Москва: Институт востоковедения [Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 19-38. [see Starostin 1991]
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