Although the state was under one-party rule for nearly a century following the Reconstruction era, both major political parties have been competitive in Virginia since the repeal of Jim Crow laws in the 1970s. Virginia's state legislature is the Virginia General Assembly, which was established in July 1619, making it the oldest current law-making body in North America. Unlike other states, cities and counties in Virginia function as equals, but the state government manages most local roads inside each. It is also the only state where governors are prohibited from serving consecutive terms.
The story of Pocahontas was simplified and romanticized by later artists and authors, including Smith himself, and promoted by her descendants, some of whom married into elite colonial families.[4]
In response to threats from these other groups to their trade network, thirty or so Virginia Algonquian-speaking tribes consolidated during the 1570s under Wahunsenacawh, known in English as Chief Powhatan.[7] Powhatan controlled more than 150 settlements that had a total population of around 15,000 in 1607.[8] Three-fourths of the native population in Virginia, however, died from smallpox and other Old World diseases during that century,[9] disrupting their oral traditions and complicating research into earlier periods.[10] Additionally, many primary sources, including those that mention Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas, were created by Europeans, who may have held biases or misunderstood native social structures and customs.[4][11]
Though more settlers soon joined, many were ill-prepared for the dangers of the new settlement. As the colony's president, John Smith secured food for the colonists from nearby tribes, but after he left in 1609, this trade stopped and a series of ambush-style killings between colonists and natives under Chief Powhatan and his brother began, resulting in mass starvation in the colony that winter.[19] By the end of the colony's first fourteen years, over eighty percent of the roughly eight thousand settlers transported there had died.[20]Demand for exported tobacco, however, fueled the need for more workers.[21] Starting in 1618, the headright system tried to solve this by granting colonists farmland for their help attracting indentured servants.[22] Enslaved Africans were first sold in Virginia in 1619. Though other Africans arrived under the rules of indentured servitude, and could be freed after four to seven years, the basis for lifelong slavery was developed in legal cases like those of John Punch in 1640 and John Casor in 1655.[23] Laws passed in Jamestown defined slavery as race-based in 1661, as inherited maternally in 1662, and as enforceable by death in 1669.[24]
From the colony's start, residents agitated for greater local control, and in 1619, certain male colonists began electing representatives to an assembly, later called the House of Burgesses, that negotiated issues with the governing council appointed by the London Company.[26] Unhappy with this arrangement, the monarchy revoked the company's charter and began directly naming governors and Council members in 1624. In 1635, colonists arrested a governor who ignored the assembly and sent him back to England against his will.[27]William Berkeley was named governor in 1642, just as the turmoil of the English Civil War and Interregnum permitted the colony greater autonomy.[28] As a supporter of the king, Berkeley welcomed other so-called Cavaliers who fled to Virginia. He surrendered to Parliamentarians in 1652, but after the 1660 Restoration made him governor again, he blocked assembly elections and exacerbated the class divide by disenfranchising and restricting the movement of indentured servants, who made up around eighty percent of the colony's workforce.[29] On the colony's frontier, Piedmonttribes like the Tutelo and Doeg were being squeezed by Seneca raiders from the north, leading to more confrontations with colonists. In 1676, several hundred working-class followers of Nathaniel Bacon, upset by Berkeley's refusal to retaliate against the tribes, marched to Jamestown and burned it.[30]
Bacon's Rebellion forced the signing of Bacon's Laws, which restored some of the colony's rights and sanctioned both attacks on native tribes and the enslavement of their men and women.[31] The Treaty of 1677 further reduced the independence of the tribes that signed it, and aided the colony's assimilation of their land in the years that followed.[32][33] Colonists in the 1700s were pushing westward into this area held by the Seneca and their larger Iroquois Nation, and in 1748, a group of wealthy speculators, backed by the British monarchy, formed the Ohio Company to start English settlement and trade in the Ohio Country west of the Appalachian Mountains.[34] The Kingdom of France, which claimed this area as part of their colony of New France, viewed this as a threat, and in 1754 the French and Indian War engulfed England, France, the Iroquois, and other allied tribes on both sides. A militia from several British colonies, called the Virginia Regiment, was led by 21-year-old Major George Washington, himself one of the investors in the Ohio Company.[35]
Virginians were instrumental in the new country's early years and in writing the United States Constitution. James Madison drafted the Virginia Plan in 1787 and the Bill of Rights in 1789.[39]Virginia ratified the Constitution on June 25, 1788. The three-fifths compromise ensured that Virginia, with its large number of slaves, initially had the largest bloc in the House of Representatives. Together with the Virginia dynasty of presidents, this gave the Commonwealth national importance. In 1790, Virginia and Maryland ceded territory to form the new national capital, which moved from Philadelphia to the District of Columbia a decade later, in 1800. In 1846, the Virginian area of the new capital was retroceded.[45] Virginia is called the "Mother of States" because of its role in being carved into states such as Kentucky, which became the fifteenth state in 1792, and for the numbers of American pioneers born in Virginia.[46]
Eyre Crowe's 1853 portrait, Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia, which he completed after visiting Richmond's slave markets, where thousands were sold annually[47]
Between 1790 and 1860, the number of slaves in Virginia rose from around 290 thousand to over 490 thousand, roughly one-third of the state population during that time, and the number of slave owners rose to over 50 thousand. Both of these numbers represented the most in the U.S.[48][49] The boom in cotton productionacross the South using cotton gins increased the amount of labor needed for harvesting raw cotton, but new federal laws prohibited the importation of additional slaves from abroad. Decades of monoculture tobacco farming had also degraded Virginia's agricultural productivity.[50] To capitalize on this situation, Virginia plantations increasingly turned to exporting slaves, which broke up countless families and made the breeding of slaves, often through rape, a profitable business for their owners.[51][52] Slaves in the Richmond area were also forced into industrial jobs, including mining and shipbuilding.[53] The failed slave uprisings of Gabriel Prosser in 1800, George Boxley in 1815, and Nat Turner in 1831, however, marked the growing resistance to the system of slavery. Afraid of further uprisings, Virginia's government in the 1830s encouraged free Blacks to migrate to Liberia.[50]
The Confederacy used Richmond as their capital from May 1861 till April 1865, when they abandoned the city and set fire to its downtown.
In Virginia, a special convention called by the legislature voted on April 17 to secede on the condition it was approved in a referendum the next month. The convention then voted to join the Confederacy, which named Richmond its capital on May 20.[46] During the May 23 referendum, armed pro-Confederate groups prevented the casting and counting of votes from areas that opposed secession. Representatives from 27 of these northwestern counties instead began the Wheeling Convention that month, which organized a government loyal to the Union and led to the separation of West Virginia as a new state.[56]
With nearly 800,000 soldiers passing through, Hampton Roads was the second-largest port of embarkation during World War I.[61]
Virginia was formally restored to the United States in 1870, due to the work of the Committee of Nine.[62] During the post-war Reconstruction era, African Americans were able to unite in communities, particularly around Richmond, Danville, and the Tidewater region, and take a greater role in Virginia society, as many achieved some land ownership during the 1870s.[63][64] Virginia adopted a constitution in 1868 which guaranteed political, civil, and voting rights, and provided for free public schools.[65] However, with many railroad lines and other infrastructure investments destroyed during the Civil War, the Commonwealth was deeply in debt, and in the late 1870s redirected money from public schools to pay bondholders. The Readjuster Party formed in 1877 and won legislative power in 1879 by uniting Black and white Virginians behind a shared opposition to debt payments and the perceived plantation elites.[66]
New economic forces would meanwhile industrialize the Commonwealth. Virginian James Albert Bonsack invented the tobacco cigarette rolling machine in 1880 leading to new large-scale production centered around Richmond. Railroad magnate Collis Potter Huntington founded Newport News Shipbuilding in 1886, which was responsible for building six dreadnoughts, seven battleships, and 25 destroyers for the U.S. Navy between 1907 and 1923.[71] During World War I, German submarines like U-151 attacked ships outside the port,[72] which was a major site for transportation of both soldiers and supplies.[61] After the war, a homecoming parade to honor African-American troops returning from service was attacked in July 1919 by the city's police as part of a renewed white-supremacy movement that was known as Red Summer.[73] The shipyard continued building cruisers and aircraft carriers in World War II, and quadrupled its pre-war labor force to 70,000 by 1943. The Radford Arsenal outside Blacksburg also employed 22,000 workers making explosives,[74] while the Torpedo Factory in Alexandria had over 5,050,[75] many of whom were African American, as President Roosevelt had ordered the desegregation of defense industries in 1941.[76]
16-year-old Barbara Rose Johns started a strike in 1951 against underfunded segregated schools in Prince Edward County. The protests led Richmond natives Spottswood Robinson and Oliver Hill to file a lawsuit against the county. Their case joined Brown v. Board of Education at the Supreme Court, which rejected the doctrine of "separate but equal" in 1954. The segregationist establishment, led by Senator Harry F. Byrd and his Byrd Organization, reacted with a strategy called "massive resistance", and the General Assembly passed a package of laws in 1956 that cut off funding to local schools that desegregated. This caused schools to begin closing in September 1958. State and district courts then ruled the strategy unconstitutional, and on February 2, 1959, Black students integrated schools in Arlington and Norfolk, where they were known as the Norfolk 17.[77] County leaders in Prince Edward, however, still refused to comply, and instead shut their school system in June 1959. It remained closed for the next five years, until litigation against them reached the Supreme Court, where the county was ordered to reopen and integrate their public schools, which finally happened in September 1964.[78][79]
Federal passage of the Civil Rights Act in June 1964 and Voting Rights Act in August 1965, and their later enforcement by the Justice Department, helped end racial segregation in Virginia and overturn Jim Crow era state laws.[80] In June 1967, the Supreme Court also struck down the state's ban on interracial marriage with Loving v. Virginia. In 1968, Governor Mills Godwin called a commission to rewrite the state constitution. The new constitution, which banned discrimination and removed articles that now violated federal law, passed in a referendum with 71.8% support and went into effect in June 1971.[81] In 1977, Black members became the majority of Richmond's city council; in 1989, Douglas Wilder became the first African American elected as governor in the United States; and in 1992, Bobby Scott became the first Black congressman from Virginia since 1888.[82][83]
Virginia is located in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States.[89][90] Virginia has a total area of 42,774.2 square miles (110,784.7 km2), including 3,180.13 square miles (8,236.5 km2) of water, making it the 35th-largest state by area.[91] The Commonwealth is bordered by Maryland and Washington, D.C. to the northeast; by the Atlantic Ocean to the east; by North Carolina to the south; by Tennessee to the southwest; by Kentucky to the west; and by West Virginia to the northwest. Virginia's boundary with Maryland and Washington, D.C. extends to the low-water mark of the south shore of the Potomac River.[92]
Virginia's southern border was defined in 1665 as 36°30' north latitude. Surveyors marking the border with North Carolina in the 18th century however started their work about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) to the north and drifted an additional 3.5 miles by the border's westernmost point, likely due to equipment issues and instructions to use natural landmarks when possible.[93] After Tennessee joined the U.S. in 1796, new surveyors worked in 1802 and 1803 to reset their border with Virginia as a line from the summit of White Top Mountain to the top of Tri-State Peak in the Cumberland Mountains. However, deviations in that border were identified when it was re-marked in 1856, and the Virginia General Assembly proposed a new surveying commission in 1871. Representatives from Tennessee preferred to keep the less-straight 1803 line, and in 1893, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled for them against Virginia.[94][95] One result is how the city of Bristol is divided in two between the states.[96]
Virginia has a humid subtropical climate that transitions to humid continental west of the Blue Ridge Mountains.[115] Seasonal extremes vary from average lows of 25 °F (−4 °C) in January to average highs of 86 °F (30 °C) in July.[116] The Atlantic Ocean and Gulf Stream have a strong effect on eastern and southeastern coastal areas of the Commonwealth, making the climate there warmer but also more constant. Most of Virginia's recorded extremes in temperature and precipitation have occurred in the Blue Ridge Mountains and areas west.[117] Virginia receives an average of 43.47 inches (110 cm) of precipitation annually,[116] with the Shenandoah Valley being the state's driest region due to the mountains on either side.[117]
Virginia has around 35–45 days with thunderstorms annually, and storms are common in the late afternoon and evenings between April and September.[118] These months are also the most common for tornadoes,[119] eight of which touched down in the Commonwealth in 2023.[120]Hurricanes and tropical storms can occur from August to October, and though they typically impact coastal regions, the deadliest natural disaster in Virginia was Hurricane Camille, which killed over 150 people mainly in inland Nelson County in 1969.[117][121] Between December and March, cold-air damming caused by the Appalachian Mountains can lead to significant snowfalls across the state, such as the January 2016 blizzard, which created the state's highest recorded one-day snowfall of 36.6 inches (93 cm) near Bluemont.[122][123] On average, cities in Virginia can receive between 5.8–12.3 inches (15–31 cm) of snow annually, but recent winters have seen below-average snowfalls, and much of Virginia failed to register any measurable snow during the 2022–2023 winter season.[124][125]
Part of this is due to climate change in Virginia, which is leading to higher temperatures year-round as well as more heavy rain and flooding events.[126]Urban heat islands can be found in many Virginia cities and suburbs, particularly in neighborhoods linked to historic redlining.[127][128] The air in Virginia has statistically improved since 1998, when haze in Blue Ridge Mountains peaked,[129] as did the number of code orange days for high ozone pollution in Fairfax County, with 64.8. In 2023, Fairfax, like neighboring Arlington and Loudoun counties, recorded just three code orange days.[130] The closure and conversion of coal power plants in Virginia and the Ohio Valley region has helped cut the amount of particulate matter in Virginia's air in half, from 13.5 micrograms per cubic meter in 2003, when coal provided 49.3% of Virginia's electricity, to 6.6 in 2023,[131] when coal provided just 1.5%, behind renewables like solar power and hydroelectricity.[132][133] Current plans call for 30% of the Commonwealth's electricity to be renewable by 2030 and for all to be carbon-free by 2050.[134]
The population density of Virginia counties and cities as of 2020
Virginia is divided into 95counties and 38independent cities, which the U.S. Census Bureau describes as county-equivalents.[169] This general method of treating cities and counties on par with each other is unique to Virginia and stretches back to the influence the cities of Williamsburg and Norfolk had in the colonial period.[170] Only three other independent cities exist elsewhere in the United States, each in a different state.[171] The differences between counties and cities in Virginia are small and have to do with how each assess new taxes, whether a referendum is necessary to issue bonds, and with the application of Dillon's Rule, which limits the authority of cities and counties to countermand acts expressly allowed by the General Assembly.[172][173] Counties can also have incorporated towns, and while there are no further administrative subdivisions, such as villages or townships, the Census Bureau recognizes several hundred unincorporated communities.
On the western edge of the Tidewater region is Virginia's capital, Richmond, which has a population of around 230,000 in its city proper and over 1.3million in its metropolitan area. On the eastern edge is the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, where over 1.7million reside across six counties and nine cities, including the Commonwealth's three most populous independent cities: Virginia Beach, Chesapeake, and Norfolk.[174][181] Neighboring Suffolk, which includes a portion of the Great Dismal Swamp, is the largest city by area at 429.1 square miles (1,111 km2).[182] One reason for the concentration of independent cities in the Tidewater region is that several rural counties there re-incorporated as cities or consolidated with existing cities to try to hold on to their new suburban neighborhoods that started booming in the 1950s, since cities like Norfolk and Portsmouth were able to annex land from adjoining counties until a moratorium in 1987.[183] Others, like Poquoson, became cities to try to preserve racial segregation in their schools and neighborhoods during the desegregation era of the 1970s.[184]
Largest Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas in Virginia
The U.S. Census Bureau found the state resident population was 8,631,393 on April 1, 2020, a 7.9% increase since the 2010 census. Another 23,149 Virginians live overseas, giving the state a total population of 8,654,542. Virginia has the fourth-largest overseas population of U.S. states due to its federal employees and military personnel.[187] The fertility rate in Virginia as of 2020[update] was 55.8 per 1,000 females between the ages of 15 and 44,[188] and the median age as of 2021[update] was the same as the national average of 38.8 years old, with the oldest city by median age being James City and the youngest being Lynchburg, home to several universities.[181] The geographic center of population is located northwest of Richmond in Hanover County, as of 2020[update].[189]
Though still growing naturally as births outnumber deaths, Virginia has had a negative net migration rate since 2013, with 8,995 more people leaving the state than moving to it in 2021. This is largely credited to high home prices in Northern Virginia,[190] which are driving residents there to relocate south, and although Raleigh is their top destination, in-state migration from Northern Virginia to Richmond increased by 36% in 2020 and 2021 compared to the annual average over the previous decade.[191][192] Aside from Virginia, the top birth state for Virginians is New York, having overtaken North Carolina in the 1990s, with the Northeast accounting for the largest number of domestic migrants into the state by region.[193] About twelve percent of residents were born outside the United States as of 2020[update]. El Salvador is the most common foreign country of birth, with India, Mexico, South Korea, the Philippines, and Vietnam as other common birthplaces.[194]
Race and ethnicity
The state's most populous racial group, non-Hispanic whites, has declined as a proportion of the population from 76% in 1990 to 58.6% in 2020, as other ethnicities have increased.[195][196] Immigrants from the islands of Britain and Ireland settled throughout the Commonwealth during the colonial period,[197] a time when roughly three-fourths of immigrants came as indentured servants.[198] Those who identify on the census as having "American ethnicity" are predominantly of English descent, but have ancestors who have been in North America for so long they choose to identify simply as American.[199][200] The Appalachian mountains and Shenandoah Valley have many settlements that were populated by German and Scotch-Irish immigrants in the 18th and 19th centuries, often following the Great Wagon Road.[201][202] Over ten percent of Virginians have German ancestry as of 2020[update].[203]
New citizens attend a naturalization ceremony in Northern Virginia, where 25% of residents are foreign-born, almost twice the overall state average.[194]
The largest minority group in Virginia are Blacks and African Americans, who include about one-fifth of the population.[196] Virginia was a major destination of the Atlantic slave trade, and the first generations of enslaved men, women, and children were brought primarily from Angola and the Bight of Biafra. The Igbo ethnic group of what is now southern Nigeria were the largest African group among slaves in Virginia.[204] Blacks in Virginia also have more European ancestry than those in other southern states, and DNA analysis shows many have asymmetrical male and female ancestry contributions from before the Civil War, evidence of European fathers and African or Native American mothers during the time of slavery.[205][206] Though the Black population was reduced by the Great Migration to northern industrial cities in the first half of the 20th century, since 1965 there has been a reverse migration of Blacks returning south.[207] The Commonwealth has the highest number of Black-white interracial marriages in the United States,[208] and 8.2% of Virginians describe themselves as multiracial.[3]
More recent immigration in the late 20th century and early 21st century has resulted in new communities of Hispanics and Asians. As of 2020[update], 10.5% of Virginia's total population describe themselves as Hispanic or Latino, and 8.8% as Asian.[3] The state's Hispanic population rose by 92% from 2000 to 2010, with two-thirds of Hispanics in the state living in Northern Virginia.[209] Northern Virginia also has a significant population of Vietnamese Americans, whose major wave of immigration followed the Vietnam War.[210]Korean Americans have migrated there more recently, attracted by the quality school system,[211] while about 45,000 Filipino Americans have settled in the Hampton Roads area, with many having ties to the U.S. Navy and armed forces.[212]
Governor Glenn Youngkin receiving a ceremonial tribute from representatives of the Mattaponi and Pamunkey tribes, a Thanksgiving tradition since 1677.[213]
Tribal membership in Virginia is complicated by the legacy of the state's "pencil genocide" of intentionally categorizing Native Americans and Blacks together, and many tribal members do have African or European ancestry, or both.[214] In 2020, the U.S. Census Bureau found that only 0.5% of Virginians were exclusively American Indian or Alaska Native, though 2.1% were in some combination with other ethnicities.[196] The state government has extended recognition to eleven tribes in Virginia. Seven tribes also have federal recognition, including six that were recognized in 2018 after passage of a bill named for activist Thomasina Jordan.[215][216] The Pamunkey and Mattaponi have reservations on tributaries of the York River in the Tidewater region.[217]
Recording of a resident of Tangier Island who was born in the late 1800s, showcasing the island's unique accent
According to U.S. Census data as of 2022[update] on Virginia residents aged five and older, 83% (6,805,548) speak English at home as a first language, while 17% (1,396,389) speak something other than English. Spanish is the next most commonly spoken language, with 7.5% (611,831) of Virginia households, though age is a factor, and 8.7% (120,560) of Virginians under age eighteen speak Spanish. Of Spanish speakers, 60.6% reported speaking English "very well", but again, of those under age eighteen, 78.7% speak English "very well". Arabic was the third most commonly spoken language with around 0.8% of residents, followed by Chinese languages (including Standard Mandarin and Cantonese) and Vietnamese each with over 0.7%, and then Korean and Tagalog, just under 0.7% and 0.6% respectively.[218]
English was passed as the Commonwealth's official language by statutes in 1981 and again in 1996, though the status is not mandated by the Constitution of Virginia.[219] While a more homogenized American English is found in urban areas, and the use of Southern accents in general has been on the decline in speakers born since the 1960s,[220] various accents are still used around the commonwealth.[221] The Piedmont region is known for its non-rhotic dialect's strong influence on Southern American English, and a BBC America study in 2014 ranked it as one of the most identifiable accents in American English.[222] The Tidewater accent, sometimes described as a subset of the Old Virginia accent, evolved from the language that upper-class English typically spoke in the early Colonial period, while the Appalachian accent has much more influence from the English spoken by Scottish and Irish immigrants from that time.[221][223] The outward stereotypes of Appalachians has, however, led to some from the region code-switching to a less distinct English accent.[224] The English spoken on Tangier Island in the Chesapeake Bay, preserved by the island's isolation, contains many phrases and euphemisms not found anywhere else and retains elements of Early Modern English.[225][226]
Virginia enshrined religious freedom in 1786, in a statute written by Thomas Jefferson. Though the state is historically part of America's Bible Belt, the 2023 Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) survey estimated that 55% of Virginians either seldom or never attend religious services, ahead of the national average of 53.2%, and that the percent of Virginians unaffiliated with any particular religious body had increased from 21% in 2013 to 29% in 2023.[227] The 2020 U.S. Religion Census conducted by the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) similarly found that 55% of Virginians attend none of the state's 10,477 congregations.[228] Overall belief in God has also declined in the South region, of which Virginia is a part, from 93% of respondents in Gallup surveys from 2013 to 2017, to 86% in 2022.[229]
Of the 45% of Virginians who were associated with religious bodies in the 2020 ARDA census, Evangelical Protestants made up the largest overall grouping, with 20.3% of the state's population, while 8.1% and 2% were mainline and Black protestant respectively. Baptists, 84% of which are counted as Evangelical, included 9.4% of Virginians in that census.[230] Their major division is between the Baptist General Association of Virginia, which formed in 1823, and the Southern Baptist Conservatives of Virginia, which split off in 1996. Other Protestant branches with over one percent of Virginians included Pentecostalism (1.8%), Presbyterianism (1.3%), Anglicanism (1.2%), and Adventism (1%).[230] The 2023 PRRI survey estimated that 46% of Virginians were Protestants, with 14% each as White Evangelical, White Mainline, and Black, though these numbers include individuals who also report not attending services.[227]
Counties and cities by median household income between 2015 and 2019
Virginia's economy has diverse sources of income, including local and federal government, military, farming and high-tech. The state's average per capita income in 2022 was $68,211,[236] and the gross domestic product (GDP) was $654.5billion, both ranking as 13th-highest among U.S. states.[237] The COVID-19 recession caused jobless claims due to soar over 10% in early April 2020,[238] before leaving off around 5% in November 2020 and returning to pre-pandemic levels in 2023.[239] In September 2024, the unemployment rate was 2.9%, which was the 8th-lowest nationwide.[240]
Virginia's business environment has been ranked highly by various publications. CNBC ranked Virginia as their 2024 Top State for Business, with its deductions being mainly for the high cost of business and living,[248] while Forbes magazine ranked it as the sixteenth best to start a business in.[249] Additionally, in 2014 a survey of 12,000 small business owners found Virginia to be one of the most friendly states for small businesses.[250]Oxfam America however ranked Virginia in 2024[update] as only the 26th-best state to work in, with pluses for worker protections from sexual harassment and pregnancy discrimination, but negatives for laws on organized labor and the low tipped employee minimum wage of $2.13.[251] Virginia has been an employment-at-will state since 1906 and a "right to work" state since 1947,[252][253] and though state minimum wage increased to $12 in 2023, farm and tipped workers are specifically excluded.[254][251]
Government agencies directly employ around 714,100 Virginians as of 2022[update], almost 17% of all employees in the state.[255] Approximately 12% of all U.S. federal procurement money is spent in Virginia, the second-highest amount after California.[256][257] As of 2020[update], 125,648 active-duty personnel, 25,404 reservists, and 99,832 civilians work directly for the U.S. Department of Defense at the Pentagon or one of 27 military bases in the state, representing all major branches and covering 270,009 acres (1,092.69 km2).[258] Another 139,000 Virginians work for defense contracting firms,[259] which received $44.8 billion worth of contracts in the 2020 fiscal year.[258] Virginia has the second highest concentration of veterans of any state with 9.7% of the population, as many stay in the state and the Hampton Roads area in particular, which is home to the world's largest navy base and only NATO station on U.S. soil, Naval Station Norfolk.[260][258]
Virginia has the third highest concentration of technology workers and the fifth highest overall number among U.S. states as of 2020[update], with the 451,268 tech jobs accounting for 11.1% of all jobs in the state and earning a median salary of $98,292.[266] Many of these jobs are in Northern Virginia, which hosts a large number of software, communications, and cybersecurity companies, particularly in the Dulles Technology Corridor and Tysons areas. Amazon additionally selected Crystal City for its HQ2 in 2018, while Google expanded their Reston offices in 2019.
Northern Virginia became the world's largest data center market in 2016, with over 47.7 million square feet (4.43 km2) as of 2023[update],[267] much of it in Loudoun County, which has branded itself "Data Center Alley".[268][269] Data centers in Virginia handled around one-third of all internet traffic and directly employed 13,500 Virginians in 2023 and supported 45,000 total jobs.[270] With 505.6 Mbit/s, Virginia boasted the second fastest average internet speed among U.S. states that year and ninth highest percent of households with broadband access, at 93.6%.[271][272]Computer chips first became the state's highest-grossing export in 2006,[273] and had an estimated export value of $740million in 2022.[274] Though in the top quartile for diversity based on the Simpson index, only 26% of tech employees in Virginia are women, and only 13% are Black or African American.[266]
Tourists spent a record $33.3billion in Virginia in 2023, an increase of 10% from the previous year, supporting an estimated 224,000 jobs, an increase of 13,000.[275] The state ranked as the eighth most visited based on data from 2022.[276] That year saw 745,000 international visitors, with 41% of those coming from Canada.[277]
Agriculture
Rockingham County in the Shenandoah Valley accounts for twenty percent of Virginia's agricultural sales as of 2017[update], with the valley as a whole being the state's most productive region.[278]
As of 2021[update], agriculture occupies 30% of the land in Virginia with 7.7million acres (12,031 sq mi; 31,161 km2) of farmland. Nearly 54,000 Virginians work on the state's 41,500 farms, which average 186 acres (0.29 sq mi; 0.75 km2). Though agriculture has declined significantly since 1960, when there were twice as many farms, it remains the largest industry in Virginia, providing for over 490,000 jobs.[279] Soybeans were the most profitable single crop in Virginia in 2022,[280] although the ongoing trade war with China has led many Virginia farmers to plant cotton instead of soybeans.[281] Other leading agricultural products include corn, cut flowers, and tobacco, where the state ranks third nationally in the production of the crop.[279][280]
Virginia is the country's third-largest producer of seafood as of 2021[update], with sea scallops, oysters, Chesapeake blue crabs, menhaden, and hardshell clams as the largest seafood harvests by value, and France, Canada, New Zealand, and Hong Kong as the top export destinations.[282] Commercial fishing supports 18,220 jobs as of 2020[update], while recreation fishing supports another 5,893.[283] The population of eastern oysters collapsed in the 1980s due to pollution and overharvesting, but has slowly rebounded, and the 2022–2023 season saw the largest harvest in 35 years with around 700,000 US bushels (25,000 kL).[284] A warm winter and a dry summer made the 2023 wine harvest one of the best for vineyards in the Northern Neck and along the Blue Ridge Mountains, which also attract 2.6million tourists annually.[285][286] Virginia has the seventh-highest number of wineries in the nation, with 388 producing 1.1 million cases a year as of 2024[update].[287]Cabernet Franc and Chardonnay are the most grown varieties.[288]Breweries in Virginia also produced 460,315 barrels (54,017 kl) of craft beer in 2022, the 15th-most nationally.[289]
Taxes
Counties and cities by median property tax paid in 2019
State income tax is collected from those with incomes above a filing threshold. There are five income brackets, with rates ranging from 2.0% to 5.75% of taxable income.[290][291] The state sales and use tax rate is 4.3%, though there is an additional 1% local tax, for a total of a 5.3% combined sales tax on most purchases. Three regions then have a higher sales tax: 6% in Northern Virginia and Hampton Roads, and 7% in the Historic Triangle.[292] Unlike the majority of states, Virginia does have a 1% sales tax on groceries.[293] This was lowered from 2.5% in January 2023, when the items covered by this lower rate were also extended to include essential personal hygiene goods.[292][294]
Virginia's property tax is set and collected at the local government level and varies throughout the Commonwealth. Real estate is also taxed at the local level based on one hundred percent of fair market value.[295] As of 2021[update], the overall median real estate tax rate per $100 of assessed taxable value was $0.96, though for 72 of the 95 counties this number was under $0.80 per $100. Northern Virginia has the highest property taxes in the state, with Manassas Park paying the highest effective tax rate at $1.31 per $100, while Powhatan and Lunenburg counties were tied for the lowest, at $0.30.[296] Of local government tax revenue, about 61% is generated from real property taxes while 24% is from tangible personal property, sales and use, and business license tax. The remaining 15% come from taxes on hotels, restaurant meals, public service corporation property, and consumer utilities.[295]
Virginia's legislature is bicameral, with a 100-member House of Delegates and 40-member Senate, who together write the laws for the Commonwealth. Delegates serve two-year terms, while senators serve four-year terms, with the most recent elections for both taking place in November 2023. The executive department includes the governor, lieutenant governor, and attorney general, who are elected every four years in separate elections, with the next taking place in November 2025. The governor must be at least thirty years old and incumbent governors cannot run for re-election, however the lieutenant governor and attorney general can, and governors can and have served non-consecutive terms.[328] The lieutenant governor is the official head of the Senate and is responsible for breaking ties. The House elects a Speaker of the House and the Senate elects a President pro tempore, who presides when the lieutenant governor is not present, and both houses elect a clerk and majority and minority leaders.[329] The governor also nominates their 16 cabinet members and others who head various state departments.[330]
The legislature starts regular sessions on the second Wednesday of every year. They meet for up to 48 days in odd years, which are election years, or 60 days in even years, to allow more time for biennial state budgets, which governors propose.[329][331] After regular sessions end, special sessions can be called either by the governor or with agreement of two-thirds of both houses, and 21 special sessions have been called since 2000, typically for legislation on preselected issues.[332] Though not a full-time legislature, the Assembly is classified as a hybrid because special sessions are not limited by the state constitution and often last several months.[333] A one-day "veto session" is also automatically triggered when a governor chooses to veto or return legislation to the Assembly with amendments. Vetoes can then be overturned with approval of two-thirds of both the House and Senate.[334] A bill that passes with two-thirds approval can also become law without action from the governor,[335] and Virginia has no "pocket veto", so bills become law if the governor chooses to neither approve nor veto them.[336]
The judges and justices who make up Virginia's judicial system, also the oldest in America, are elected by a majority vote in both the House and Senate without input from the governor, one way Virginia's legislature is stronger than its executive. The governor can make recess appointments, and when both branches are controlled by the same party, the assembly often confirms them. The judicial hierarchy starts with the General District Courts and Juvenile and Domestic Relations District Courts, with the Circuit Courts above them, then the Court of Appeals of Virginia, and the Supreme Court of Virginia on top.[337] The Supreme Court has seven justices who serve 12-year terms, with a mandatory retirement age of 73, and they select their own chief justice, who is informally limited to two four-year terms.[338] Virginia was the last state to guarantee an automatic right of appeal for all civil and criminal cases, and its Court of Appeals increased from 11 to 17 judges in 2021.[339][340]
Between 1608 and 2021, when the death penalty was abolished, the state executed over 1,300 people, including 113 following the resumption of capital punishment in 1982.[345] Virginia's prison system incarcerates 30,936 people as of 2018[update], 53% of whom are Black,[346] and the state has the sixteenth-highest rate of incarceration in the country, at 422 per 100,000 residents.[347] Virginia state prisons make disproportionate use of attack dogs, with 90% of recorded dog attacks in U.S. prisons between 2017 and 2022 occurring in Virginia.[348] Prisoner parole was ended in 1995,[349] and Virginia's rate of recidivism of released felons who are re-convicted within three years and sentenced to a year or more is 23.1%, the lowest in the country as of 2019[update].[350][351] Virginia has the fourth lowest violent crime rate and thirteenth lowest property crime rate as of 2018[update].[352] Between 2008 and 2017, arrests for drug-related crimes rose 38%, with 71% of those related to marijuana,[353] which Virginia decriminalized in July 2020 and legalized in July 2021.[354][355]
Mirroring Virginia's political transition, the annual Shad Planking event in Wakefield has evolved from a vestige of the Byrd era into a regular stop for many state campaigns.[356]
Over the past century, Virginia has shifted politically from being a largely rural, conservative, Southern bloc member to a state that is more urbanized, pluralistic, and politically moderate, as both greater enfranchisement and demographic shifts have changed the electorate. Up until the 1970s, Virginia was a racially divided one-party state dominated by the Byrd Organization.[357] They sought to stymie the political power of Northern Virginia, perpetuate segregation, and successfully restricted voter registration such that between 1905 and 1948, roughly one-third of votes in the state were cast by state employees and officeholders themselves, and voter turnout was regularly below ten percent.[358][359] The organization used malapportionment to manipulate what areas were over-represented in the General Assembly and the U.S. Congress until ordered to end the practice by the 1964 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Davis v. Mann and the 1965 Virginia Supreme Court decision in Wilkins v. Davis respectively.[360]
Enforcement of federal civil rights legislation passed in the mid-1960s helped overturn the state's Jim Crow laws that effectively disfranchised African Americans.[361] The Voting Rights Act of 1965 made Virginia one of nine states that were required to receive federal approval for changes to voting laws, until the system for including states was struck down in 2013.[362] A strict photo identification requirement, added under Governor Bob McDonnell in 2014, was repealed in 2020,[363] and the Voting Rights Act of Virginia was passed in 2021, requiring preclearance from the state Attorney General for local election changes that could result in disenfranchisement, including closing or moving polling sites.[364] Though many Jim Crow provisions were removed in Virginia's 1971 constitution, a lifetime ban on voting for felony convictions was unchanged, and by 2016, up to twenty percent of African Americans in Virginia were disenfranchised because of prior felonies.[365] That year, Governor Terry McAuliffe ended the lifetime ban and individually restored voting rights to over 200,000 ex-felons.[358] These changes moved Virginia from being ranked as the second most difficult state to vote in 2016, to the twelfth easiest in 2020.[366]
Regional differences also play a large part in Virginia politics. While urban and expanding suburban areas, including much of Northern Virginia, form the modern Democratic Partybase, rural southern and western areas moved to support the Republican Party in response to its "southern strategy" starting around 1970.[367][368] Rural Democratic support has nevertheless persisted in union-influenced Roanoke in Southwest Virginia, college towns such as Charlottesville and Blacksburg, and the southeastern Black Belt Region.[369] African Americans are the most reliable bloc of Democratic voters,[361] but educational attainment and gender have also become strong indicators of political alignment, with the majority of women in Virginia supporting Democratic presidential candidates since 1980.[370] International immigration and domestic migration into Virginia have also increased the proportion of eligible voters born outside the state from 44% in 1980 to 55% in 2019.[371]
Republican hold Democratic hold Republican gain Democratic gain
Because Virginia enacted their post-Civil-War constitution in 1870, state elections in Virginia occur in odd-numbered years, with executive department elections occurring in years following U.S. presidential elections and State Senate elections occurring in the years prior to presidential elections, as both have four-year terms.[372]House of Delegates elections take place concurrent with each of those elections as delegates have two-year terms. National politics often play a role in state election outcomes, and Virginians have elected governors of the party opposite the U.S. president in eleven of the last twelve contests, with only Terry McAuliffe beating the trend in 2013.[373][374] McAuliffe, a Democrat, was elected during Barack Obama's second presidential term.[375] Republicans at that time held a supermajority of seats in the House of Delegates, which they had first gained in the 2011 state elections,[376] and a one-vote majority in the state senate, both of which they maintained in the 2015 elections.[377] The 2011 and 2015 elections also had the lowest voter turnout in recent history, with just 28.6% and 29.1% of registered voters participating respectively.[378]
The 2017 state elections resulted in Democrats holding the three executive offices, as lieutenant governor Ralph Northam won the race for governor. In concurrent House of Delegates elections, Democrats flipped fifteen of the Republicans' previous sixteen-seat majority.[379] Control of the House came down to a tied election in the 94th district, which the Republican won by a drawing of lots, giving the party a slim 51–49 majority in the 2018–19 legislative sessions.[380] At this time, Virginia was ranked as having the most gerrymandered U.S. state legislature, as Republicans controlled the House with only 44.5% of the total vote.[381] In 2019, federal courts found that eleven House district lines, including the 94th, were unconstitutionally drawn to discriminate against African Americans.[382][383] Adjusted districts were used in the 2019 elections, when Democrats won full control of the General Assembly, despite a political crisis earlier that year.[384][385] Voters in 2020 then passed a referendum to give control of drawing both state and congressional districts to a commission of eight citizens and four legislators from each of the two major parties, rather than the legislature.[386]
Though Virginia was considered a "swing state" in the 2008 presidential election,[391] Virginia's thirteen electoral votes were carried in that election and the three since by Democratic candidates, including Joe Biden, who won by over ten percent in 2020, suggesting the state has shifted to being reliably Democratic in presidential elections. Virginia had previously voted for Republican presidential candidates in thirteen out of fourteen presidential elections from 1952 to 2004, including ten in a row from 1968 to 2004.[392] Virginia currently holds its presidential open primary election on Super Tuesday, the same day as fourteen other states, with the most recent held on March 5, 2024.[393]
Virginia's educational system consistently ranks in the top five states on the U.S. Department of Education'sNational Assessment of Educational Progress, with Virginia students outperforming the average in all subject areas and grade levels tested.[398] The 2021 Quality Counts report ranked Virginia's K–12 education thirteenth in the country, with a letter grade of B−.[399] Virginia's K–7 schools had a student–teacher ratio of 12.15:1 as of the 2021–22 school year, and 12.52:1 for grades 8–12.[400] All school divisions must adhere to educational standards set forth by the Virginia Department of Education, which maintains an assessment and accreditation regime known as the Standards of Learning to ensure accountability.[401]
Public K–12 schools in Virginia are generally operated by the counties and cities, and not by the state. As of the 2022–23 academic year,[update] a total of 1,263,342 students were enrolled in 2,381 local and regional schools in the Commonwealth, including 57 career and technical schools and 411 alternative and special education centers across 126 school divisions. Besides the general public schools in Virginia, there are Governor's Schools and selective magnet schools. The Governor's Schools are a collection of 52 regional high schools and summer programs intended for gifted students,[402][403] and include the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, the top-rated high school in the country in 2022.[404] The Virginia Council for Private Education oversees the regulation of 483 state accredited private schools.[405] An additional 50,713 students receive homeschooling.[406]
In 2022, 92.1% of high school students graduated on-time after four years,[407] and 89.3% of adults over the age 25 had their high school diploma.[3] Virginia has one of the smaller racial gaps in graduation rates among U.S. states,[408] with 90.3% of Black students graduating on time, compared to 94.9% of white students and 98.3% of Asian students. Hispanic students had the highest dropout rate, at 13.95%, with high rates being correlated with students listed as English learners.[407] Despite ending school segregation in the 1960s, seven percent of Virginia's public schools were rated as "intensely segregated" by The Civil Rights Project at UCLA in 2019, and the number has risen since 1989, when only three percent were.[409] Virginia has comparatively large public school districts, typically comprising entire counties or cities, and this helps mitigate funding gaps seen in other states such that non-white districts average slightly more funding, $255 per student as of 2019[update], than majority white districts.[410] Elementary schools, with Virginia's smallest districts, were found to be more segregated than state middle or high schools by a 2019 VCU study.[411]
Virginia has a mixed health record. The state was ranked best for its physical environment in the 2023 United Health Foundation's Health Rankings, but 19th for its overall health outcomes and only 26th for residents' healthy behaviors. Among U.S. states, Virginia has the 22nd lowest rate of premature deaths, with 8,709 per 100,000,[131] and an infant mortality rate of 5.61 per 1,000 live births.[423] The rate of uninsured Virginians dropped to 6.5% in 2023, following an expansion of Medicare in 2019.[131]Falls Church and Loudoun County were both ranked in the top ten healthiest communities in 2020 by U.S. News & World Report.[424]
There are however racial and social health disparities. With high rates of heart disease and diabetes, African Americans in Virginia have an average life expectancy four years less than whites and twelve less than Asian Americans and Latinos,[425] and were disproportionately affected by COVID-19 during the coronavirus pandemic.[426] African-American mothers are also three times more likely to die while giving birth in the state.[427] Mortality rates among white middle-class Virginians have also been rising, with drug overdose, alcohol poisoning, and suicide as leading causes.[428] Suicides in the state increased over 14% between 2009 and 2023, while deaths from drug overdoses more than doubled in that time.[131] Virginia has a ratio of 221.5 primary care physicians per 10,000 residents, the fifteenth worst rate nationally, and only 250.3 mental health providers per that number, the fourteenth worst nationwide.[131] A December 2023 report by the General Assembly found that all nine public mental health care facilities were over 95% full, causing overcrowding and delays in admissions.[429]
Weight is an issue for many Virginians, and 32.2% of adults and 14.9% of 10- to 17-year-olds are obese as of 2021[update].[430] Additionally, 35% of adults are overweight and 23.3% do not exercise regularly.[431] Smoking in bars and restaurants was banned in January 2010,[432] and the percent of tobacco smokers in the state has declined from 19% in that year to 12.1% in 2023, but an additional 7.7% use e-cigarettes. The percentage of adults who receive annual immunizations is above average, as 47.8% get their yearly flu vaccination.[131] In 2008, Virginia became the first U.S. state to mandate the HPV vaccine for girls for school attendance,[433] and 62.7% of adolescents have the vaccine as of 2023[update].[131]
Because of the 1932 Byrd Road Act, the state government controls most of Virginia's roads, instead of a local county authority as is usual in other states.[449] As of 2018[update], the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) owns and operates 57,867 miles (93,128 km) of the total 70,105 miles (112,823 km) of roads in the state, making it the third-largest state highway system in the nation.[450]
Traffic on Virginia's roads is among the worst in the nation according to the 2019 American Community Survey. The average commute time of 28.7 minutes is the eighth-longest among U.S. states, and the Washington Metropolitan Area, which includes Northern Virginia, has the second-worst rate of traffic congestion among U.S. cities.[451] About 67.9% of workers in Virginia reported driving alone to work in 2021, the fourteenth lowest percent in the U.S.,[131] while 8.5% reported carpooling,[452] and Virginia hit peak car usage before the year 2000, making it one of the first such states.[453]
Virginia has Amtrak passenger rail service along several corridors, and Virginia Railway Express (VRE) maintains two commuter lines into Washington, D.C. from Fredericksburg and Manassas. VRE experienced a dramatic decline in ridership due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with daily ridership dropping from over 18,000 in 2019 to 6,864 in February 2024.[458][459] Amtrak routes in Virginia have however passed their pre-pandemic levels and served 123,658 passengers in March 2024.[460]Norfolk operates a light rail system called The Tide, servicing about 2,300 people per day.[461] Major freight railroads in Virginia include Norfolk Southern and CSX Transportation, and in 2021 the state finalized a deal to purchase 223 miles (359 km) of track and over 350 miles (560 km) of right of way from CSX for future passenger rail service.[462]
Virginia is also home to several of the nation's top high school basketball programs, including Paul VI Catholic High School and Oak Hill Academy, the latter of which has won nine national championships.[489] In the 2022–2023 school year, 176,623 high school students participated in fourteen girls sports and thirteen boys sports managed by the Virginia High School League, with the most popular sports being football, outdoor track and cross country, soccer, basketball, baseball and softball, and volleyball.[490] Outside of the high school system, 145 youth soccer clubs operate in the Virginia Youth Soccer Association, under the USYS system, as of 2024[update].[491]
The state slogan, "Virginia Is for Lovers", has been used since 1969 and is featured on state welcome signs.[492]
Virginia has several nicknames, the oldest of which is the "Old Dominion". King Charles II of England is first referred to "our auntient Collonie of Virginia" one of "our own Dominions" in 1662 or 1663, perhaps choosing this language because Virginia was home to many of his supporters during the English Civil War.[493][494] These supporters were called Cavaliers, and the nickname "The Cavalier State" was popularized after the American Civil War.[495] Virginia has also been called the "Mother of Presidents", as eight Virginians have served as President of the United States, including four of the first five.[496]
The state's motto, Sic Semper Tyrannis, translates from Latin as "Thus Always to Tyrants", and is used on the state seal, which is then used on the flag.[1] While the seal was designed in 1776, and the flag was first used in the 1830s, both were made official in 1930.[497] The majority of the other symbols were made official in the late 20th century.[498] In 1940, "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny" was named the state song, but it was retired in 1997 due to its nostalgic references to slavery. In March 2015, Virginia's government named "Our Great Virginia", which uses the tune of "Oh Shenandoah", as the traditional state song and "Sweet Virginia Breeze" as the popular state song.[499]
^Nesbit, Scott; Nelson, Robert K.; McInnis, Maurie (November 2010). "Visualizing the Richmond Slave Trade". San Antonio: American Studies Association. Retrieved August 30, 2022.
^MacKay, Kathryn L. (May 14, 2006). "Statistics on Slavery". Weber State University. Retrieved July 23, 2022.
^"Virginia's Agricultural Resources". Natural Resource Education Guide. Virginia Department of Environmental Quality. January 21, 2008. Archived from the original on October 20, 2008. Retrieved February 8, 2008.
^"Coal"(PDF). Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy. July 31, 2008. Archived(PDF) from the original on January 3, 2015. Retrieved February 26, 2014.
^ abU.S. Climate Divisional Dataset (January 2024). "Climate at a Glance". NOAA National Centers for Environmental information. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
^ abKaren Terwilliger, A Guide to Endangered and Threatened Species in Virginia (Virginia Department of Game & Inland Fisheries/McDonald & Woodward: 1995), p. 158.
^White, Mel (April 28, 2016). "Birding in Virginia". National Audubon Society. Retrieved May 28, 2021.
^Jeffrey C. Beane, Alvin L. Braswell, William M. Palmer, Joseph C. Mitchell & Julian R. Harrison III, Amphibians and Reptiles of the Carolinas and Virginia (2d ed.: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), pp. 51, 102.
^Lieberson, Stanley & Waters, Mary C. (1986). "Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 487 (79): 82–86. doi:10.1177/0002716286487001004. S2CID60711423.
^Wood, Joseph (January 1997). "Vietnamese American Place Making in Northern Virginia". Geographical Review. 87 (1): 58–72. doi:10.2307/215658. JSTOR215658.
^ abKulp, Stephen C. (January 2018). Virginia Local Tax Rates, 2017(PDF) (Report) (36th annual ed.). Weldon Cooper Center for Public Service, University of Virginia/LexisNexis. p. 7.
^Strum, Albert L.; Howard, A. E. Dick (June 1977). "Commentaries on the Constitution of Virginia by A. E. Dick Howard". The American Political Science Review. 71 (2): 714–715. doi:10.2307/1978427. JSTOR1978427.
^Lettner, Kimberly (2008). "Message from the Chief". The Division of Capitol Police. Archived from the original on May 19, 2009. Retrieved September 10, 2009.
^ abBurchett, Michael H. (Summer 1997). "Promise and prejudice: Wise County, Virginia and the Great Migration, 1910–1920". The Journal of Negro History. 82 (3): 312–327. doi:10.2307/2717675. JSTOR2717675. S2CID141153760.
^Miller, Gary; Schofield, Norman (May 2003). "Activists and Partisan Realignment in the United States". The American Political Science Review. 97 (2): 245–260. doi:10.1017/s0003055403000650 (inactive November 1, 2024). JSTOR3118207. S2CID12885628.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
Carroll, Steven; Miller, Mark (2002). Wild Virginia: A Guide to Thirty Roadless Recreation Areas Including Shenandoah National Park. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot. ISBN978-0-7627-2315-7.
Moran, Michael G. (2007). Inventing Virginia: Sir Walter Raleigh and the Rhetoric of Colonization, 1584–1590. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN978-0-8204-8694-9.
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