The species is a perennial, often cultivated as an annual in temperate climates, often growing to around 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) tall. As a member of the Malvaceae, it is related to such species as cotton, cocoa, and hibiscus. The leaves are 10–20 centimetres (4–8 in) long and broad, palmately lobed with 5–7 lobes. The flowers are 4–8 cm (1+5⁄8–3+1⁄8 in) in diameter, with five white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal. The pollens are spherical and approximately 188 microns in diameter. The fruit is a capsule up to 18 cm (7 in) long with pentagonal cross-section, containing numerous seeds.
The first use of the word okra (alternatively; okro or ochro) appeared in 1679 in the Colony of Virginia, deriving from Igbo: ọ́kwụ̀rụ̀.[8] The word gumbo was first used in American English around 1805, derived from Louisiana Creole,[9] but originates from either Umbundu: ochinggõmbo[10] or Kimbundu: kingombo.[11] Even though the word gumbo often refers to the dish gumbo in most of the United States, many places in the Deep South may have used it to refer to the pods and plant as well as many other variants of the word found across the African diaspora in the Americas.[12]
Origin and distribution
Whole plant with blossom and immature pod
Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage. However, proposed parents include Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus and a reported "diploid" form of okra.[13] Truly wild (as opposed to naturalised) populations are not known with certainty, and the West African variety has been described as a cultigen.[14]
The plant was introduced to the Americas by ships plying the Atlantic slave trade[17] by 1658, when its presence was recorded in Brazil. It was further documented in Suriname in 1686. Okra may have been introduced to southeastern North America from Africa in the early 18th century. By 1748, it was being grown as far north as Philadelphia.[18]Thomas Jefferson noted it was well established in Virginia by 1781. It was commonplace throughout the Southern United States by 1800, and the first mention of different cultivars was in 1806.[4]
Abelmoschus esculentus is cultivated throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world for its fibrous fruits or pods containing round, white seeds. It is among the most heat- and drought-tolerant vegetable species in the world and will tolerate soils with heavy clay and intermittent moisture, but frost can damage the pods. In cultivation, the seeds are soaked overnight prior to planting to a depth of 1–2 cm (3⁄8–13⁄16 in). It prefers a soil temperature of at least 20 °C (68 °F) for germination, which occurs between six days (soaked seeds) and three weeks. As a tropical plant, it also requires a lot of sunlight, and it should also be cultivated in soil that has a pH between 5.8 and 7, ideally on the acidic side.[19] Seedlings require ample water. The seed pods rapidly become fibrous and woody and, to be edible as a vegetable, must be harvested when immature, usually within a week after pollination.[20] The first harvest will typically be ready about 2 months after planting, and it will be approximately 2–3 inches (51–76 mm) long.[19]
The most common disease afflicting the okra plant is verticillium wilt, often causing a yellowing and wilting of the leaves. Other diseases include powdery mildew in dry tropical regions, leaf spots, yellow mosaic and root-knot nematodes. Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in A. esculentus was transferred through a cross with Abelmoschus manihot and resulted in a new variety called Parbhani kranti.[21]
In the U.S. much of the supply is grown in Florida, especially around Dade in southern Florida.[22][23] Okra is grown throughout the state to some degree, so okra is available ten months of the year.[22] Yields range from less than 18,000 pounds per acre (20,000 kg/ha) to over 30,000 pounds per acre (34,000 kg/ha).[22]Wholesale prices can go as high as $18/bushel which is $0.60 per pound ($1.3/kg).[22] The Regional IPM Centers provide integrated pest management plans for use in the state.[22]
Production
In 2021, world production of okra was 10.8 million tonnes, led by India with 60% of the total, with Nigeria and Mali as secondary producers.
Okra is one of three thickeners that may be used in gumbo soup from Louisiana.[27]Fried okra is a dish from the Cuisine of the Southern United States. In Cuba and Puerto Rico, the vegetable is referred to as quimbombó, and is used in dishes such as quimbombó guisado (stewed okra), a dish similar to gumbo.[28][29] It is also used in traditional dishes in the Dominican Republic, where it is called molondrón.[30] In Brazil, it is an important component of several regional dishes, such as caruru, made with shrimp, in the Northeastern region, and frango com quiabo (chicken with okra) and carne refogada com quiabo (stewed meat with okra) in Minas Gerais.
In South Asia, the pods are used in many spicy vegetable preparations as well as cooked with beef, mutton, lamb and chicken.[31][32]
Pods
Stir-fried sliced okra fruits
The pods of the plant are mucilaginous, resulting in the characteristic "goo" or slime when the seed pods are cooked; the mucilage contains soluble fiber.[33] One possible way to de-slime okra is to cook it with an acidic food, such as tomatoes, to minimize the mucilage.[34] Pods are cooked, pickled, eaten raw, or included in salads. Okra may be used in developing countries to mitigate malnutrition and alleviate food insecurity.[33]
Leaves and seeds
Young okra leaves may be cooked similarly to the greens of beets or dandelions, or used in salads. Okra seeds may be roasted and ground to form a caffeine-free substitute for coffee.[4] When importation of coffee was disrupted by the American Civil War in 1861, the Austin State Gazette said, "An acre of okra will produce seed enough to furnish a plantation with coffee in every way equal to that imported from Rio."[35]
Greenish-yellow edible okra oil is pressed from okra seeds; it has a pleasant taste and odor, and is high in unsaturated fats such as oleic acid and linoleic acid.[36] The oil content of some varieties of the seed is about 40%. At 794 kilograms per hectare (708 lb/acre), the yield was exceeded only by that of sunflower oil in one trial.[37]
^National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN978-0-309-48834-1. PMID30844154. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
^Gutierrez, C. Paige (1992). Cajun Foodways. University Press of Mississippi. p. 56. ISBN978-0-87805-563-0.
^Mays, D A, Buchanan, W, Bradford, B N, Giordano, P M (1990). "Fuel production potential of several agricultural crops". In Janick J, Simon JE (eds.). Advances in New Crops: Proceedings of the First National Symposium NEW CROPS, Research, Development, Economics, Indianapolis, Indiana, October 23-26, 1988. Timber Press. pp. 260–263. ISBN978-0-88192-166-3.
^De Rosa, I.M.; Kenny, J.M.; Puglia, D.; Santulli, C.; Sarasini, F. (2010). "Morphological, thermal and mechanical characterization of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) fibres as potential reinforcement in polymer composites". Composites Science and Technology. 70 (1): 116–122. doi:10.1016/j.compscitech.2009.09.013.
^Konstantinos Anastasakis; Dimitrios Kalderis; Evan Diamadopoulos (2009), "Flocculation behavior of mallow and okra mucilage in treating wastewater", Desalination, 249 (2): 786–791, Bibcode:2009Desal.249..786A, doi:10.1016/j.desal.2008.09.013
^Araújo, Antonio; Galvão, Andrêssa; Filho, Carlos Silva; Mendes, Francisco; Oliveira, Marília; Barbosa, Francisco; Filho, Men Sousa; Bastos, Maria (October 2018). "Okra mucilage and corn starch bio-based film to be applied in food". Polymer Testing. 71: 352–361. doi:10.1016/j.polymertesting.2018.09.010.
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