Gongduk language

Gongduk
Gongdukpa Ang
དགོང་འདུས་
Native toBhutan
RegionMongar District
Native speakers
2,000 (2006)[1]
Sino-Tibetan
  • Gongduk
Tibetan script
Language codes
ISO 639-3goe
Glottologgong1251
ELPGongduk
  Gongduk
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Gongduk or Gongdu (Tibetan: དགོང་འདུས་, Wylie: Dgong-'dus, it is also known as Gongdubikha[2]) is an endangered Sino-Tibetan language spoken by about 1,000 people in a few inaccessible villages located near the Kuri Chhu river in the Gongdue Gewog of Mongar District in eastern Bhutan. The names of the villages are Bala, Dagsa, Damkhar, Pam, Pangthang, and Yangbari (Ethnologue).

History

The people are said to have come from hunters that would move from place to place at times.[3]

The language is notable for only being discovered by linguists in 1991.[4] Currently, George van Driem is working towards the completion of a description of Gongduk based on his work with native speakers in the Gongduk area.[5]

Classification

Gongduk has complex verbal morphology, which Ethnologue considers a retention from Proto-Tibeto-Burman,[1] and is lexically highly divergent.[6] On this basis, it is apparently not part of any major subgroup and will probably have to be assigned to its own branch.[6][5]

George van Driem (2001:870)[7] proposes that the Greater Bumthang (East Bodish) languages, including Bumthang, Khengkha, and Kurtöp, may have a Gongduk substratum. Gongduk itself may also have a non-Tibeto-Burman substrate.[citation needed]

Gerber (2018)[8] notes that Gongduk has had extensive contact with Black Mountain Mönpa before the arrival of East Bodish languages in Bhutan. Gongduk also has many Tshangla loanwords. The following comparative vocabulary table from Gerber (2020) compares Gongduk, Black Mountain Mönpa, and Bjokapakha, which is a divergent Tshangla variety.[9]

Gloss Gongduk Black Mountain Mönpa Bjokapakha
hair (on head) θɤm guluŋ tsham
tongue dəli líː lɪ
eye mik mek ~ mik miŋ
ear nərəŋ naktaŋ nabali
tooth ɤn áː ~ waː sha
bone rukɤŋ ɦɤtphok ~ yöphok khaŋ
blood winiʔ kɔk yi
hand/arm gur lɤk ~ lok gadaŋ
leg/foot bidɤʔ dɤkpɛŋ ~ tɛ̤kɛŋ bitiŋ
faeces ki cok khɨ
water dɤŋli cö, khe ri
rain wɤ ghö ŋamtsu
dog oki cüla ~ khula khu
pig don pɔk phakpa
fish kuŋwə nye̤ ŋa
louse dɤr θæːk shiŋ
bear bekpələ wɤm ~ wom omsha
son ledə bæθaː za
daughter medə bæmɛt zamin
name kət mön ~ min mɨŋ
house kiŋ mhiː̤ ~ mhe̤ː phai
fire mi áːmik ~ áːmit mɨ
to hear lə yu- goː- nai tha-
to see tɤŋ- tuŋ- thoŋ-
to look məl- ~ mɤt- mak- got-
to sit mi- ~ mu- buŋ- ~ bæŋ- laŋ-
to die komθ- θɛː- ~ θɛʔ- shi-
to kill tɤt- θüt- ~ θut- ~ θit she-
Comparison of numerals:[9]
Gloss Gongduk Black Mountain Mönpa Bjokapakha
one ti tɛk thur
two niktsə nhü ɲiktsiŋ
three towə sam sam
four piyə blö pshi
five ŋəwə lɔŋ ŋa
six kukpə o̤ːk khuŋ
seven ðukpə nyí zum
eight yitpə jit [ʤit] yɪn
nine guwə doːga gu
ten deyə chö se
Comparison of pronouns:[9]
Pronoun Gongduk Black Mountain Mönpa Bjokapakha
1SG ðə kö jaŋ
2SG gi iŋ nan
3SG gon hoʔma (MASC); hoʔmet (FEM) dan
1PL ðiŋ ɔŋdat (INCL); anak (EXCL) ai
2PL giŋ iŋnak nai
3PL gonmət hoʔoŋ dai

Phonology

Consonants[9]
Labial Dental Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive oral p b t d (ʈ) (ɖ) k g ʔ
aspirated pʰ tʰ (ʈʰ) kʰ
Affricate oral ts (dz) tɕ dʑ
aspirated (tsʰ) tɕʰ
Fricative θ ð ɕʲ h
Nasal m n ŋ
Approximant w r, l j
  • Consonants in parentheses are only found in loanwords.
  • The velar stops /kʰ k g/ are in free variation with their uvular counterparts [qʰ q ɢ].
  • The stops /p t k/ are glottalised and unreleased [ʔp̚ ʔt̚ ʔk̚] at the end of syllables.
  • /ŋ/ can often be heard as a glottal stop [ʔ] in fast speech or following another nasal.
  • /n/ and /ŋ/ are palatalized to [ɲ] before /i/ or /j/.
Vowels[9]
Front Central Back
Unrounded Rounded
High i (y) u
Mid e (ø) ɤ o
Low (ɛ) ə (ɔ)
  • /y/ and /ø/ most often appear after palatal consonants and in loanwords.
  • /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ may be in free variation with /e o/.
  • /ə/ can often be heard as [ɐ~ɑ].
  • /ɤ/ varies broadly between [ɨ~ɯ~ɤ~ɘ~ə].

Grammar

Morphology

Gongduk has productive suffixal morphology (van Driem 2014).[10]

<-məˀtⁿ> ‘plural suffix in human nouns’

Examples:

  • oloˀŋməˀtⁿ ‘children’ < oloˀk ‘child’ + -məˀtⁿ
  • ŋidɤməˀtⁿ ‘people’ < ŋidɤ ‘person’ + -məˀtⁿ
  • aroˀŋməˀtⁿ ‘friends’ < aroˀk ‘friend’ + -məˀtⁿ


However, non-human plural nouns do not take on any suffixes, and remain the same:

  • kurtə ‘horse, horses’
  • kəitɤ ‘bird, birds’
  • kiŋ ‘house, houses’
<-e ~ -ðe ~ -θe> ‘ergative and possessive suffix’

Examples:

  • bɤʔlɤpə-e ‘the people of Bɤʔlɤ [ergative]’
  • choŋnən-ðe me ‘the seed of the maize’
  • nor-θe taɦ ‘meat of the cow [beef]’
  • rek-θe rukɤŋ ‘head bone [skull]’
  • aroʔk-te-θe ‘the friend [ergative]’
  • əp drəkpə-e ‘Ap Drakpa [ergative]’
  • θok-θe əkəm ‘egg of offering (sacrificial egg)’
  • lei-ti-ðe juʔmə ‘after one month’
<-gi> ‘ablative suffix’

Examples:

  • ðiŋ goŋduʔ-gi əna ‘We are from Gongduk’
  • nikkələŋ-gi ‘by way of the stairs’
  • dəkθə-gi ‘from Daksa’
  • kidu-gi ‘as a kidu [government gift]’
  • bɤʔlɤ-gi ‘from Bɤʔlɤ’
  • deŋkəle wɤŋ-gi ‘from Dengkalé Dale’
  • doʔmoŋ-gi ‘from "Black Roof" village’
  • phəjoŋ pəm-gi ‘from Phajong Pam’
<-gu ~ -go ~ -ku ~-ko> ‘dative / locative suffix’

Examples:

  • gərəŋ-go ‘to whom’
  • ohaŋ duʔ-gu ‘in that village’
  • rek-ko ‘to [his] head’
  • ðə-go ‘to me’
  • jə-go ‘to India’
  • gaoŋ-go ‘whereto, where precisely’
  • pəkpək-ko ‘at times, sometimes’
  • thimphu-gu ‘to Thimphu’

Demonstratives

Gongduk demonstratives precede head nouns.[10]

ohaŋ ‘that (demonstrative)’

Examples:

  • ohaŋ ŋidɤ ‘that person’
  • ohaŋ koŋ ‘that tree’
  • ohaŋ duʔgu ‘in that village’

Personal pronouns

Personal pronoun paradigm[10]
absolutive ergative & genitive
singular plural singular plural
1st person exclusive ðə ðiŋ ðe ðiŋ, ðiŋ ŋəŋpoe
inclusive iθi, iθirəŋ gəŋpo dei, dei gəŋpoe
2nd person gi giŋ gi giŋ, giŋ ŋəŋpoe
3rd person gon gonmə gonðe gonməe, gonma ŋəŋpoe

van Driem (2014) compares the Gongduk first person singular personal pronoun ðə 'I, me' to Kathmandu Newar dʑiː ~ dʑĩ- 'I, me' and Tshangla dʑaŋ ~ dʑi- ~ dʑiŋ- 'I, me'. He also compares the Gongduk first person plural personal pronoun ðiŋ 'we, us' to Kathmandu Newar dʑʰai ~ dʑʰĩ- 'we, us'.

Vocabulary

The Gongduk words and phrases below are from van Driem (2014).[10]

Basic vocabulary

  • rek ‘head’
  • rukɤŋ ‘bone’
  • əŋ ‘language, mouth’
  • dɤŋli ‘water’
  • wɤ ‘rain’
  • yər ‘cliff’
  • dɤ ‘salt’
  • ɤn ‘tooth’
  • koŋ ‘tree’
  • diŋ ‘wood’
  • me ‘seed’
  • dola ‘cooked Setaria or rice’
  • choŋnən ‘maize’
  • ɤwɤ ‘banana’
  • taɦ ‘meat’
  • wərə ‘highland paddy, ghaiyā’
  • khərəŋ ‘cooked Panicum or maize’
  • don ‘pig’
  • nor ‘cow’
  • kurtə ‘horse’
  • kəitɤ ‘bird’
  • əkəm ‘egg’
  • jə ‘day (24-hour period)’
  • lei ‘month’
  • oloʔk ‘child’
  • ŋidɤ ‘person’
  • aroʔk ‘friend’
  • duʔ ‘village’
  • kiŋ ‘house’
  • nikkələŋ ‘stairs’
  • θok ‘offering’
  • goŋduʔ ‘Gongduk’

Numerals

  • ti ‘1’
  • niktsə ‘2’
  • towə ‘3’
  • diyə, piyə ‘4’
  • ŋəwə ‘5’
  • qukpə ‘6’
  • ðukpə ‘7’
  • yitpə, hetpə ‘8’
  • ɢuwə ‘9’
  • deyə ‘10’
  • deθəti ‘11’
  • deθəniktsə ‘12’
  • deθətowə ‘13’
  • khəe ‘score (20)’
  • khəe ŋəwə ‘five score, i.e. one hundred’

Interrogative pronouns

  • gərəŋ ‘who’
  • gərəe ‘whose’
  • θəpo ‘what’
  • ko ‘when’
  • gaoŋ ‘where, whither’
  • qəti ‘how much, how many’
  • gainəŋ ‘which, whence’
  • qətigu ‘at what time’
  • θəu, θəudi ‘why, how come’
  • gora, gorapəm ‘how, in which way’
  • ohaŋ ‘that (demonstrative)’

References

  1. ^ a b Gongduk at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ^ "Gongduk". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2017-02-08.
  3. ^ "Languages and Ethnic Groups of Bhutan". www.languagesgulper.com. Retrieved 2017-02-08.
  4. ^ "Why do languages die?", by Christopher Moseley, in The 5-Minute Linguist, ISBN 978-1-908049-49-0
  5. ^ a b Himalayan Languages Project. "Gongduk". Himalayan Languages Project. Archived from the original on 2012-03-03. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  6. ^ a b Blench, R. & Post, M. W. (2013). Rethinking Sino-Tibetan phylogeny from the perspective of Northeast Indian languages
  7. ^ van Driem, George. 2001. Languages of the Himalayas. Leiden: Brill
  8. ^ Gerber, Pascal. 2018. Areal features in Gongduk, Bjokapakha and Black Mountain Mönpa phonology Archived 2019-03-24 at the Wayback Machine. Unpublished draft.
  9. ^ a b c d e Gerber, Pascal (2020). "Areal features in Gongduk, Bjokapakha and Black Mountain Mönpa phonology". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 43 (1): 55–86. doi:10.1075/ltba.18015.ger. ISSN 0731-3500. S2CID 225218734.
  10. ^ a b c d van Driem, George. 2014. Gongduk Nominal Morphology and the phylogenetic position of Gongduk. Paper presented at the 20th Himalayan Languages Symposium, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 16 July 2014.

Bibliography

  • Dzongkha Development Authority; Dasho Sangay Dorji; Col. Wangdi Tshering; Namgay Thinley; Gyembo Dorji; Phuntsho Wangdi; Lekyi Tshering; Sangay Phuntsho (2005). དགོང་འདུས་རྫོང་ཁ་ཨིན་སྐད་ཤན་སྦྱར་ཚིག་མཛོད། (Gongduk-Dzongkha-English Dictionary). Thimphu: Dzongkha Development Authority. p. 115. ISBN 99936-663-1-9.
  • Gerber, Pascal. 2019. Gongduk agreement morphology in functional and diachronic perspective. Paper presented at the ISBS Inaugural Conference, Magdalen College, University of Oxford.
  • van Driem, George L; et al. (Karma Tshering of Gaselô) (1998). Dzongkha. Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region. Leiden: Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies. pp. 32–33. ISBN 90-5789-002-X.
  • van Driem, George L (2007). "Endangered languages of Bhutan and Sikkim". In Brenzinger, Matthias (ed.). Language diversity endangered. Trends in linguistics. Studies and monographs. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 314–15. ISBN 978-3-11-017050-4.
  • van Driem, George. 2014. Gongduk Nominal Morphology and the phylogenetic position of Gongduk. Paper presented at the 20th Himalayan Languages Symposium, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 16 July 2014.

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