Tibetan script

Tibetan
བོད་ཡིག་
Tibetan; བོད་ཡིག་
	The mantra "Om mani padme hum"
Script type	Abugida
Time period	c. 650–present
Direction	Left-to-right
Languages	Tibetan; Dzongkha; Ladakhi; Sikkimese; Balti; Sherpa; Jirel; Yolmo; Tshangla; Sanskrit;
Related scripts
Parent systems	Egyptian Proto-Sinaitic Phoenician Aramaic Brahmi Gupta Tibetan; ; ; ; ; ;
Child systems	Meitei; Lepcha; Khema; Phagspa; Marchen; Tamyig;
Sister systems	Sharada, Siddham, Kalinga, Bhaiksuki
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Tibt (330), Tibetan
Unicode
Unicode alias	Tibetan
Unicode range	U+0F00–U+0FFF Final Accepted Script Proposal of the First Usable Edition (3.0)
	This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

This article contains Tibetan script. Without proper rendering support, you may see very small fonts, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Tibetan characters.

The Tibetan script is a segmental writing system (abugida) of Indic origin used to write certain Tibetic languages, including Tibetan, Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Ladakhi, Jirel and Balti. It has also been used for some non-Tibetic languages in close cultural contact with Tibet, such as Thakali^[5] and Old Turkic. The printed form is called uchen script while the hand-written cursive form used in everyday writing is called umê script. This writing system is used across the Himalayas and Tibet.

The script is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in India, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet.^[6] The Tibetan script is of Brahmic origin from the Gupta script and is ancestral to scripts such as Meitei,^[3] Lepcha,^[7] Marchen and the multilingual ʼPhags-pa script.^[7]

History

According to traditional Tibetan historiography, the Tibetan script was introduced by Thonmi Sambhota in the first half of the 7th century, mainly for the codification of the sacred Buddhist texts.^[8]^[9] From a contemporary academic perspective, this is merely a legend invented in the second half of the 11th century.^[10] New research and writings suggest that there were one or more Tibetan scripts in use prior to the introduction of the current script by Songtsen Gampo and Thonmi Sambhota. The Dunhuang manuscripts are key evidence for this hypothesis.^[11]

Three orthographic standardisations were developed. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of Buddhist scriptures, emerged during the early 9th century. Standard orthography has not altered since then, while the spoken language has changed by, for example, losing complex consonant clusters. As a result, in all modern Tibetan dialects and in particular in the Standard Tibetan of Lhasa, there is a great divergence between current spelling (which still reflects the 9th-century spoken Tibetan) and current pronunciation. This divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of spelling reform, to write Tibetan as it is pronounced; for example, writing Kagyu instead of Bka'-rgyud.^[12]

The nomadic Amdo Tibetan and the western dialects of Ladakhi, as well as Balti, come very close to the Old Tibetan spellings.^[10] But the grammar of these varieties has considerably changed. To write the modern varieties according to the classical orthography and grammar of Classical Tibetan would be the same as to write Italian according to that of Latin, or to write Hindi according to that of Sanskrit.^[10] However, modern Buddhist elites in the Indian subcontinent insisted the classical orthography should not be altered even when used for lay purposes. This became an obstacle for many modern Tibetic languages to modernize or to introduce a written tradition. Amdo Tibetan was one of a few examples where the Buddhist elites initiated a spelling reform.^[10] A spelling reform in Ladakhi was controversial due in part because it was first initiated by Christian missionaries.^[10]

Description

Basic alphabet

In the Tibetan script, the syllables are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a tsek (་); since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, this mark often functions almost as a space. Spaces are not used to divide words.^[13]

The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants.^[7] As in other Indic scripts, each consonant letter assumes an inherent vowel; in the Tibetan script it is /a/. The letter ཨ is also the base for dependent vowel marks.

Although some Tibetan dialects are tonal, the language had no tone at the time of the script's invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from segmental features, they can usually be correctly predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words.

	Unaspirated high		Aspirated medium		Voiced low		Nasal low
	Letter	IPA	Letter	IPA	Letter	IPA	Letter	IPA
Guttural	ཀ	/ka/	ཁ	/kʰa/	ག^[a]	/ɡa/	ང	/ŋa/
Palatal	ཅ	/tʃa/	ཆ	/tʃʰa/	ཇ^[a]	/dʒa/	ཉ	/ɲa/
Dental	ཏ	/ta/	ཐ	/tʰa/	ད^[a]	/da/	ན	/na/
Labial	པ	/pa/	ཕ	/pʰa/	བ^[a]	/ba/	མ	/ma/
Dental	ཙ	/tsa/	ཚ	/tsʰa/	ཛ^[a]	/dza/	ཝ	/wa/
low	ཞ^[a]	/ʒa/	ཟ^[a]	/za/	འ	/ɦa/^[14] ⟨ʼa⟩	ཡ	/ja/
medium	ར	/ra/	ལ	/la/	ཤ	/ʃa/	ས	/sa/
high	ཧ	/ha/	ཨ	/a/ ⟨ꞏa⟩

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g These voiced values are historical. They have been devoiced in modern Standard Tibetan.

Consonant clusters

One aspect of the Tibetan script is that the consonants can be written either as radicals or they can be written in other forms, such as subscript and superscript forming consonant clusters.

To understand how this works, one can look at the radical ཀ /ka/ and see what happens when it becomes ཀྲ /kra/ or རྐ /rka/ (pronounced /ka/). In both cases, the symbol for ཀ /ka/ is used, but when the ར /ra/ is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the ར /ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, it is added as a superscript.^[7] ར /ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants, thus རྐ rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster རྙ /ɲa/. Similarly, the consonants ར /ra/, and ཡ /ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants, thus ཀྲ /ʈ ~ ʈʂa/; ཀྱ /ca/.

Besides being written as subscripts and superscripts, some consonants can also be placed in prescript, postscript, or post-postscript positions. For instance, the consonants ག /kʰa/, ད /tʰa/, བ /pʰa/, མ /ma/ and འ /a/ can be used in the prescript position to the left of other radicals, while the position after a radical (the postscript position), can be held by the ten consonants ག /kʰa/, ན /na/, བ /pʰa/, ད /tʰa/, མ /ma/, འ /a/, ར /ra/, ང /ŋa/, ས /sa/, and ལ /la/. The third position, the post-postscript position is solely for the consonants ད /tʰa/ and ས /sa/.^[7]

Head letters

The head (མགོ in Tibetan, Wylie: mgo) letter, or superscript, position above a radical is reserved for the consonants ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/.

When ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/ are in superscript position with ཀ /ka/, ཅ /t͡ʃa/, ཏ /ta/, པ /pa/ and ཙ /t͡sa/, there are no changes to their sounds in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
- རྐ /ka/, རྟ /ta/, རྤ /pa/, རྩ /t͡sa/
- ལྐ /ka/, ལྕ /t͡ʃa/, ལྟ /ta/, ལྤ /pa/,
- སྐ /ka/, སྟ /ta/, སྤ /pa/, སྩ /t͡sa/
When ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/ are in superscript position with ག /kʰa/, ཇ /t͡ʃʰa/, ད /tʰa/, བ /pʰa/ and ཛ /t͡sʰa/, they lose their aspiration and become voiced in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
- རྒ /ga/, རྗ /d͡ʒa/, རྡ /da/, རྦ /ba/, རྫ /dza/
- ལྒ /ga/, ལྗ /d͡ʒa/, ལྡ /da/, ལྦ /ba/,
- སྒ /ga/, སྡ /da/, སྦ /ba/
When ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ས /sa/ are in superscript position with the nasal consonants ང /ŋa/, ཉ /ɲa/, ན /na/ and མ /ma/, they receive a high tone in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
- རྔ /ŋa/, རྙ /ɲa/, རྣ /na/, རྨ /ma/
- ལྔ /ŋa/
- སྔ /ŋa/, སྙ /ɲa/, སྣ /na/, སྨ /ma/
When ལ /la/ is in superscript position with ཧ /ha/, it becomes a voiceless alveolar lateral approximant in Lhasa Tibetan:
- ལྷ /l̥a/,

Sub-joined letters

The subscript position under a radical can only be occupied by the consonants ཡ /ja/, ར /ra/, ལ /la/, and ཝ /wa/. In this position they are described as བཏགས (Wylie: btags, IPA: /taʔ/), in Tibetan meaning "hung on/affixed/appended", for example བ་ཡ་བཏགས་བྱ (IPA: /pʰa.ja.taʔ.t͡ʃʰa/), except for ཝ, which is simply read as it usually is and has no effect on the pronunciation of the consonant to which it is subjoined, for example ཀ་ཝ་ཟུར་ཀྭ (IPA: /ka.wa.suː.ka/).

Vowel marks

The vowels used in the alphabet are ཨ /a/, ཨི /i/, ཨུ /u/, ཨེ /e/, and ཨོ /o/. While the vowel /a/ is included in each consonant, the other vowels are indicated by marks; thus ཀ /ka/, ཀི /ki/, ཀུ /ku/, ཀེ /ke/, ཀོ /ko/. The vowels ཨི /i/, ཨེ /e/, and ཨོ /o/ are placed above consonants as diacritics, while the vowel ཨུ /u/ is placed underneath consonants.^[7] Old Tibetan included a reversed form of the mark for /i/, the gigu 'verso', of uncertain meaning. There is no distinction between long and short vowels in written Tibetan, except in loanwords, especially transcribed from the Sanskrit.

Vowel mark	IPA	Vowel mark	IPA	Vowel mark	IPA	Vowel mark	IPA
ི	/i/	ུ	/u/	ེ	/e/	ོ	/o/

Numerical digits

Tibetan numerals	༠	༡	༢	༣	༤	༥	༦	༧	༨	༩
Devanagari numerals	०	१	२	३	४	५	६	७	८	९
Arabic numerals	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
Tibetan fractions	༳	༪	༫	༬	༭	༮	༯	༰	༱	༲
Arabic fractions	-0.5	0.5	1.5	2.5	3.5	4.5	5.5	6.5	7.5	8.5

Punctuation marks


Symbol/ Graphemes	Name	Function
༄༅། །	ཡིག་མགོ yig mgo	marks beginning of a text, before a headline, front page of a pecha
༃	གཏེར་ཡིག་མགོ gter yig mgo	used in place of the yig mgo in terma texts
༁	ཡིག་མགོ་ཨ་ཕྱེད yig mgo a phyed	used in place of the yig mgo in terma texts
༆	དཔེ་རྙིང་ཡིག་མགོ dpe rnying yig mgo	a variant of the yig mgo found in very old Tibetan texts
༉	བསྐུར་ཡིག་མགོ bskur yig mgo	list enumerator (Dzongkha)
་	ཚེག tseg	syllable delimiter, also used as a spacer to justify text in pechas
།	ཤད shad	full stop, comma, or semicolon (marks end of a sentence or clause, and originates from the danda of Indic scripts)
། །	ཉིས་ཤད nyis shad	marks end of a paragraph or topic (cp. pilcrow)
༎ །།	བཞི་ཤད bzhi shad	marks end of a chapter or entire section
། །།	གསུམ་ཤད gsum shad	same as bzhi shad, but used when the preceding character is ཀ or ག
༑	རིན་ཆེན་སྤུངས་ཤད rin chen spungs shad	replaces shad after single, orphaned syllables, indicating to the reader that the preceding syllable continues from text on the previous line
༏	ཚེག་ཤད tsheg shad	variant of rin chen spungs shad
༐	ཉིསཚེག་ཤད nyis tsheg shad	variant of rin chen spungs shad
༈	སྦྲུལ་ཤད sbrul shad	marks the start of a new text, often in a collection of texts, separates chapters, and surrounds inserted text
༔	གཏེར་ཤད gter shad	replaces shad and variants thereof in terma texts
༒	རྒྱ་གྲམ་ཤད rgya gram shad	sometimes used in place of the yig mgo in terma texts
༸	ཆེ་མགོ che mgo	literally, "big head"—used preceding a reference to the Dalai Lama or the name of another important lama or tulku that demands great respect
༴	བསྡུས་རྟགས bsdus rtags	repetition
༓	འཛུད་རྟགས་མེ་ལོང་ཅན 'dzud rtags me long can	caret (indicates text insertion)
༼	ཨང་ཁང་གཡོན་འཁོར ang khang g.yon 'khor	left roof bracket
༽	ཨང་ཁང་གཡས་འཁོར ang khang g.yas 'khor	right roof bracket
༺	གུག་རྟགས་གཡོན gug rtags g.yon	left bracket
༻	གུག་རྟགས་གཡས gug rtags g.yas	right bracket

Extended use

The Tibetan alphabet, when used to write other languages such as Balti, Chinese and Sanskrit, often has additional and/or modified graphemes taken from the basic Tibetan alphabet to represent different sounds.

Extended alphabet


Letter	Used in	Romanization & IPA
ཫ	Balti	qa /qa/ (/q/)
ཬ	Balti	ɽa /ɽa/ (/ɽ/)
ཁ༹	Balti	xa /χa/ (/χ/)
ག༹	Balti	ɣa /ʁa/ (/ʁ/)
ཕ༹	Chinese	fa /fa/ (/f/)
བ༹	Chinese	va /va/ (/v/)
གྷ	Sanskrit	gha /ɡʱ/
ཛྷ	Sanskrit	jha /ɟʱ, d͡ʒʱ/
ཊ	Sanskrit	ṭa /ʈ/
ཋ	Sanskrit	ṭha /ʈʰ/
ཌ	Sanskrit	ḍa /ɖ/
ཌྷ	Sanskrit	ḍha /ɖʱ/
ཎ	Sanskrit	ṇa /ɳ/
དྷ	Sanskrit	dha /d̪ʱ/
བྷ	Sanskrit	bha /bʱ/
ཥ	Sanskrit	ṣa /ʂ/
ཀྵ	Sanskrit	kṣa /kʂ/

In Balti, consonants ka, ra are represented by reversing the letters ཀ ར (ka, ra) to give ཫ ཬ (qa, ɽa).
The Sanskrit retroflex consonants ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ṇa, ṣa are represented in Tibetan by reversing the letters ཏ ཐ ད ན ཤ (ta, tha, da, na, sha) to give ཊ ཋ ཌ ཎ ཥ (ṭa, ṭha, ḍa, ṇa, ṣa).
It is a classical rule to transliterate Sanskrit ca, cha, ja, jha, to Tibetan ཙ ཚ ཛ ཛྷ (tsa, tsha, dza, dzha), respectively. Nowadays, ཅ ཆ ཇ ཇྷ (ca, cha, ja, jha) can also be used.

Extended vowel marks and modifiers


Vowel Mark	Used in	Romanization & IPA
ཱ	Sanskrit	ā /aː/
ཱི	Sanskrit	ī /iː/
ཱུ	Sanskrit	ū /uː/
ཻ	Sanskrit	ai /ɐi̯/
ཽ	Sanskrit	au /ɐu̯/
ྲྀ	Sanskrit	ṛ /r̩/
ཷ	Sanskrit	ṝ /r̩ː/
ླྀ	Sanskrit	ḷ /l̩/
ཹ	Sanskrit	ḹ /l̩ː/
ཾ	Sanskrit	aṃ /◌̃/
ྃ	Sanskrit	aṃ /◌̃/
ཿ	Sanskrit	aḥ /h/


Symbol/ Graphemes	Name	Used in	Function
྄	srog med	Sanskrit	suppresses the inherent vowel sound
྅	paluta	Sanskrit	used for prolonging vowel sounds

Consonant Clusters

In addition to the use of supplementary graphemes, the rules for constructing consonant clusters are amended, allowing any character to occupy the superscript or subscript position, negating the need for the prescript and postscript positions.

Romanization and transliteration

Romanization and transliteration of the Tibetan script is the representation of the Tibetan script in the Latin script. Multiple Romanization and transliteration systems have been created in recent years, but do not fully represent the true phonetic sound.^{[note 1]} While the Wylie transliteration system is widely used to Romanize Standard Tibetan, others include the Library of Congress system and the IPA-based transliteration (Jacques 2012).

Below is a table with Tibetan letters and different Romanization and transliteration system for each letter, listed below systems are: Wylie transliteration (W), Tibetan pinyin (TP), Dzongkha phonetic (DP), ALA-LC Romanization (A)^[15] and THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription (THL).

Letter	W	TP	DP	A	THL	Letter	W	TP	DP	A	THL	Letter	W	TP	DP	A	THL	Letter	W	TP	DP	A	THL
ཀ	ka	g	ka	ka	ka	ཁ	kha	k	kha	kha	kha	ག	ga*	k*	kha*	ga*	ga*	ང	nga	ng	nga	nga	nga
ཅ	ca	j	ca	ca	cha	ཆ	cha	q	cha	cha	cha	ཇ	ja*	q*	cha*	ja*	ja*	ཉ	nya	ny	nya	nya	nya
ཏ	ta	d	ta	ta	ta	ཐ	tha	t	tha	tha	ta	ད	da*	t*	tha*	da*	da*	ན	na	n	na	na	na
པ	pa	b	pa	pa	pa	ཕ	pha	p	pha	pha	pa	བ	ba*	p*	pha*	ba*	ba*	མ	ma	m	ma	ma	ma
ཙ	tsa	z	tsa	tsa	tsa	ཚ	tsha	c	tsha	tsha	tsa	ཛ	dza*	c*	tsha*	dza*	dza*	ཝ	wa	w	wa	wa	wa
ཞ	zha*	x*	sha*	zha*	zha*	ཟ	za*	s*	sa*	za*	za*	འ	'a	-	a	'a	a	ཡ	ya	y	ya	ya	ya
ར	ra	r	ra	ra	ra	ལ	la	l	la	la	la	ཤ	sha	x	sha	sha	sha	ས	sa	s	sa	sa	sa
ཧ	ha	h	ha	ha	ha	ཨ	a	a	a	a	a
* – Only in loanwords

Input method and keyboard layout

Tibetan

The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS Windows Vista. The layout has been available in Linux since September 2007. In Ubuntu 12.04, one can install Tibetan language support through Dash / Language Support / Install/Remove Languages, the input method can be turned on from Dash / Keyboard Layout, adding Tibetan keyboard layout. The layout applies the similar layout as in Microsoft Windows.

Mac OS-X introduced Tibetan Unicode support with OS-X version 10.5 and later, now with three different keyboard layouts available: Tibetan-Wylie, Tibetan QWERTY and Tibetan-Otani.

Dzongkha

The Dzongkha keyboard layout scheme is designed as a simple means for inputting Dzongkha text on computers. This keyboard layout was standardized by the Dzongkha Development Commission (DDC) and the Department of Information Technology (DIT) of the Royal Government of Bhutan in 2000.

It was updated in 2009 to accommodate additional characters added to the Unicode & ISO 10646 standards since the initial version. Since the arrangement of keys essentially follows the usual order of the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet, the layout can be quickly learned by anyone familiar with this alphabet. Subjoined (combining) consonants are entered using the Shift key.

The Dzongkha (dz) keyboard layout is included in Microsoft Windows, Android, and most distributions of Linux as part of XFree86.

Unicode

Tibetan was originally one of the scripts in the first version of the Unicode Standard in 1991, in the Unicode block U+1000–U+104F. However, in 1993, in version 1.1, it was removed (the code points it took up would later be used for the Burmese script in version 3.0). The Tibetan script was re-added in July, 1996 with the release of version 2.0.

The Unicode block for Tibetan is U+0F00–U+0FFF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks and special symbols used in religious texts:

Tibetan^[1]^[2]^[3] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF)
	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
U+0F0x	ༀ	༁	༂	༃	༄	༅	༆	༇	༈	༉	༊	་	༌ NB	།	༎	༏
U+0F1x	༐	༑	༒	༓	༔	༕	༖	༗	༘	༙	༚	༛	༜	༝	༞	༟
U+0F2x	༠	༡	༢	༣	༤	༥	༦	༧	༨	༩	༪	༫	༬	༭	༮	༯
U+0F3x	༰	༱	༲	༳	༴	༵	༶	༷	༸	༹	༺	༻	༼	༽	༾	༿
U+0F4x	ཀ	ཁ	ག	གྷ	ང	ཅ	ཆ	ཇ		ཉ	ཊ	ཋ	ཌ	ཌྷ	ཎ	ཏ
U+0F5x	ཐ	ད	དྷ	ན	པ	ཕ	བ	བྷ	མ	ཙ	ཚ	ཛ	ཛྷ	ཝ	ཞ	ཟ
U+0F6x	འ	ཡ	ར	ལ	ཤ	ཥ	ས	ཧ	ཨ	ཀྵ	ཪ	ཫ	ཬ
U+0F7x		ཱ	ི	ཱི	ུ	ཱུ	ྲྀ	ཷ	ླྀ	ཹ	ེ	ཻ	ོ	ཽ	ཾ	ཿ
U+0F8x	ྀ	ཱྀ	ྂ	ྃ	྄	྅	྆	྇	ྈ	ྉ	ྊ	ྋ	ྌ	ྍ	ྎ	ྏ
U+0F9x	ྐ	ྑ	ྒ	ྒྷ	ྔ	ྕ	ྖ	ྗ		ྙ	ྚ	ྛ	ྜ	ྜྷ	ྞ	ྟ
U+0FAx	ྠ	ྡ	ྡྷ	ྣ	ྤ	ྥ	ྦ	ྦྷ	ྨ	ྩ	ྪ	ྫ	ྫྷ	ྭ	ྮ	ྯ
U+0FBx	ྰ	ྱ	ྲ	ླ	ྴ	ྵ	ྶ	ྷ	ྸ	ྐྵ	ྺ	ྻ	ྼ		྾	྿
U+0FCx	࿀	࿁	࿂	࿃	࿄	࿅	࿆	࿇	࿈	࿉	࿊	࿋	࿌		࿎	࿏
U+0FDx	࿐	࿑	࿒	࿓	࿔	࿕	࿖	࿗	࿘	࿙	࿚
U+0FEx
U+0FFx
Notes 1.^ As of Unicode version 15.1 2.^ Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points 3.^ Unicode code points U+0F77 and U+0F79 are deprecated in Unicode 5.2 and later

Notes

^ See for instance [1] [2]

References

Citations

^ Daniels, Peter T. (January 2008). "Writing systems of major and minor languages". In Kachru, Braj B.; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S. N. (eds.). Language in South Asia. pp. 285–308. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511619069.017. ISBN 978-0-521-78653-9.
^ Masica, Colin (1993). The Indo-Aryan languages. p. 143.
^ ^a ^b Chelliah, Shobhana Lakshmi (2011). A Grammar of Meithei. De Gruyter. p. 355. ISBN 9783110801118. Archived from the original on 2023-04-13. Retrieved 2023-03-19. Meithei Mayek is part of the Tibetan group of scripts, which originated from the Gupta Brahmi script
^ Singh, Harimohon Thounaojam (January 2011), The Evolution and Recent Development of the Meetei Mayek Script, Cambridge University Press India, p. 28
^ Manzardo, Andrew E. "Impression Management and Economic Growth: The Case of the Thakalis of Dhaulagiri Zone" (PDF). Kailash: A Journal of Himalayan Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-11-20. Retrieved 2023-11-20.
^ Chamberlain 2008
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
^ William Woodville Rockhill, Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, p. 671, at Google Books, United States National Museum, page 671
^ Berzin, Alexander. A Survey of Tibetan History - Reading Notes Taken by Alexander Berzin from Tsepon, W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967: http://studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/e-books/unpublished_manuscripts/survey_tibetan_history/chapter_1.html Archived 2016-06-17 at the Wayback Machine.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Zeisler, Bettina (2006). "Why Ladakhi must not be written – Being part of the Great Tradition Another kind of global thinking". In Anju Saxena; Lars Borin (eds.). Lesser-Known Languages of South Asia. p. 178.
^ Phuntsok, Thubten. བོད་ཀྱི་ལོ་རྒྱུས་སྤྱི་དོན་པདྨ་ར་གཱའི་ལྡེ་མིག "A General History of Tibet".
^ Gamble, R. (2018). Reincarnation in Tibetan Buddhism: The Third Karmapa and the Invention of a Tradition. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-069078-6. Retrieved 2024-05-12.
^ Chan, A.; Noble, A. (2009). Sounds in Translation: Intersections of Music, Technology and Society. DOAB Directory of Open Access Books. ANU E Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-921536-55-7. Retrieved 2024-05-12.
^ Hill, Nathan W. (2005b). "Once more on the letter འ" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 28 (2): 111–141. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-06-01.; Hill, Nathan W. (2009). "Tibetan <ḥ-> as a plain initial and its place in Old Tibetan phonology" (PDF). Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 32 (1): 115–140. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-06-01. Retrieved 2022-06-01.
^ "ALA-LC Romanization of Tibetan script (PDF)" (PDF). Library of Congress. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-04-13. Retrieved 2017-12-29.

Sources

Asher, R. E. ed. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon Press, 1994. 10 vol.
Beyer, Stephan V. (1993). The Classical Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
Chamberlain, Bradford Lynn. 2008. Script Selection for Tibetan-related Languages in Multiscriptal Environments. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 192:117–132.
Csoma de Kőrös, Alexander. (1983). A Grammar of the Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
Csoma de Kőrös, Alexander (1980–1982). Sanskrit-Tibetan-English Vocabulary. 2 vols. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Das, Sarat Chandra: "The Sacred and Ornamental Characters of Tibet". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 57 (1888), pp. 41–48 and 9 plates.
Das, Sarat Chandra. (1996). An Introduction to the Grammar of the Tibetan Language. Reprinted by Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Jacques, Guillaume 2012. A new transcription system for Old and Classical Tibetan Archived 2017-08-09 at the Wayback Machine, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 35.3:89-96.
Jäschke, Heinrich August. (1989). Tibetan Grammar. Corrected by Sunil Gupta. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.