Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)

Sultanate of Brunei كسلطانن بروني (Jawi) Kesultanan Brunei (Rumi)
1363/68–1888
Flag
The maximum territorial extent of the Bruneian Empire (yellow) with its vassals (light yellow) in 1521.
Status	Vassal of the Majapahit Empire (1368–1408) Sovereign state (1408–1888)
Capital	Kota Batu (1368–1660) Saragua (Sarawak) (1578)[1] Kampong Ayer (1660–1920) [2]
Common languages	Brunei Malay, Old Malay, Old Tagalog, Kapampangan, Arabic and Bornean languages
Religion	Sunni Islam
Demonym(s)	Bruneian
Government	Monarchy
Sultans
• 1363/68–1402	Sultan Muhammad Shah
• 1425–1432	Sharif Ali
• 1485–1524	Bolkiah
• 1582–1598	Muhammad Hassan
• 1828–1852	Omar Ali Saifuddin II
• 1885–1888[3]	Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin
History
• Establishment of the Sultanate	1363/68
• Became a British protectorate	1888
Currency	Barter, Cowrie, Piloncitos, and later Brunei pitis
Preceded by Succeeded by Majapahit Brunei North Borneo Crown Colony of Labuan Raj of Sarawak Dutch East Indies Spanish East Indies Sultanate of Sarawak Maynila Sultanate of Sulu
Today part of	Brunei Indonesia Malaysia Philippines

The Sultanate of Brunei (Jawi: كسلطانن بروني) or simply Brunei (/bruːˈnaɪ/ broo-NY), also known as the Brunei Empire, was a Malay sultanate, centered around Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Brunei became a sovereign state around the 15th century, when it substantially expanded after the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese,^[4][5] extending throughout coastal areas of Borneo and the Philippines, before it declined in the 17th and 18th centuries.^[6] It became a British protectorate in the 19th century.

Historiography

The limited evidence from contemporary sources poses a challenge in understanding the history of the early Bruneian Sultanate. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for this. As a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei.^[7] Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Western Borneo, while Poli (婆利), probably located in the Aceh region in Sumatra,^[8] is claimed by local authorities to refer to Brunei as well.^[9]

History

Pre-sultanate history

A renegade group from the kingdom of Funan in Cambodia found themselves in Borneo after escaping the Khmer invasion, which is where Brunei's historical roots lie. In honor of its ruler, Raja Kamrun, the early Arab explorers called this new country Kamrun. This name changed throughout time to become Muja, Zabaj, and finally Brunei. The history of the area was also impacted by Srivijaya, from which rulers and their supporters fled to Brunei after Raja Sailendra conquered it.^[10] When these migrants took over Kamrun, the native population was forced to flee into the interior, which may have resulted in the rise of the Murut and Bisaya peoples.^[11]

Brunei is an ancient kingdom located in the Malay Archipelago, alongside other historical kingdoms such as Palembang Tua, Tarumanagara, Perlak, Pasai, Malacca, Gersik, and Demak. The kingdom, known as P'oli or Brunei, is first mentioned in Chinese historical records around 518 AD, situated on an island southeast of Canton, with a maritime journey from Canton to Brunei taking approximately 60 days. According to these records, Brunei was a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom at the time, governing 136 regions.^[12] In 518 AD, the King of Brunei sent envoys to China to strengthen diplomatic relations, bringing gifts like gold mats and other local products for the Chinese Emperor. Five years later, in 523 AD, the King sent another delegation with additional gifts, including seashells, perfumes, and other local goods.^[13]

Around 669 AD, the King of Brunei once again dispatched envoys to China, this time alongside Siamese representatives. During this period, Brunei was referred to in Chinese history as P'olo. The records also note that P'oli or P'olo is equivalent to P'oni (Brunei), located on an island southwest of Chuan-chou. The travel time was recorded as 45 days to Java, 40 days to Palembang, and 30 days to Champa. During the Song dynasty, Brunei, referred to as Puni, was noted as a large and powerful state, ruling over 14 regions and boasting 100 warships. The people were known for their bravery in battle, wielding swords and spears, and wearing armor made of copper for protection against enemy attacks.^[13]

Rice cultivation was the main source of income for the people of Brunei, whose land was said to be extremely productive. Some also fished and reared chickens and goats. In addition to many other handicrafts, the ladies were adept at weaving fabric, creating mats, and constructing baskets. The capital of Brunei, which had around 10,000 residents, was encircled by wooden defences. Like the people's dwellings, the royal palace was covered with nipa palm leaves.^[13]

In 977 AD, a Chinese merchant of Arab descent named P'u-lu-shieh (Fairuz Shah) arrived in Brunei for trade, receiving a warm welcome from the king and the local populace. Upon his return to China, the King requested P'u-lu-shieh to escort his envoy to the Chinese Emperor. P'u-lu-shieh agreed, and the royal delegation was led by Abu Ali (Pu Ya Li), Syeikh Noh (Shih-Nu), and Qadi Kasim (Koh-shin).^[13] They brought letters and gifts for the emperor, including 100 turtle shells, camphor, five pieces of agarwood, three trays of sandalwood, raksamala wood, and six elephant tusks. The letter included three main points: to inform the Emperor about P'u-lu-shieh’s arrival in Brunei and his assistance in repairing the damaged ship; to send envoys to the Emperor as representatives, offering gifts on behalf of the king; and to request the Emperor's assistance in notifying the Champa government to ensure the safety of Brunei's ships stranded there due to storms. Since that time, the relationship between Brunei and China became increasingly close and friendly.^[14]

Known as the "Maritime Silk Road" or "spice road," Brunei's commerce networks were essential in linking it to other areas. As evidence of Brunei's early engagement in foreign affairs, King Hiang-ta of P'oni dispatched an embassy to China in 977 AD. Brunei's historical significance is demonstrated by the fact that it was referred to by names like P'oli and P'oni during the Liang, Sui, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties. In the Temburong District in particular, the term P'oni is still used today. In addition, the family of Awang Alak Betatar is thought to have established the old monarchy in Garang before moving to Kota Batu in 1397 AD.^[11]

In the 14th century, Brunei seems to have been a subject of Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the vassal state of Majapahit,^[15] which had to make an annual tribute of 40 katis of camphor.

After Majapahit invaded Brunei, its subject kingdoms in the Philippines which were formally under its control, rebelled against Brunei, chief of which was the former kingdom of Sulu which besieged and pillaged it.

Its (Brunei's) own empire gone, it would appear to have shrunk to its heartland by Brunei bay. It now paid an annual tribute of 40 kati of camphor to the Majapahit Emperor. But worse was to follow. 1369 marks the absolute nadir of Brunei's fortunes, for in that year its former subjects the Suluks put it to sack. So utterly helpless were the Bruneis, that they had to be rescued by the Majapahit fleet, which drove out the intruders, who departed laden with enormous booty and taking the two precious pearls.

— Robert Nicholl, "Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times"^[16]

Expansion

After the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Brunei from 1530 and described the capital of Brunei as surrounded by a stone wall.^[4][17] During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth sultan, the sultanate controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo (present-day Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah) and reached Seludong (present-day Serudong River, Sabah^[18]) as well as the Sulu Archipelago.^{[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]}

In the 16th century, the Brunei's influence extended as far as the Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and the Sultanate of Sulu in the southern Philippines in particular developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. Even the Muslim Rajahs of Manila, Rajah Matanda, for example had family-links with the Brunei Sultanate. The Malay sultans of Pontianak, Samarinda and Banjarmasin, treated the Sultan of Brunei as their leader. The true nature of Brunei's relationship with other Malay sultanates of coastal Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago is still a subject of study, as to whether it was a vassal state, an alliance, or just a ceremonial relationship. Other regional polities also exercised their influence upon these sultanates. The Sultanate of Banjar (present-day Banjarmasin), for example, was also under the influence of Demak in Java. The growth of Malacca as the largest Southeast Asian entrepôt in the Maritime Silk Road led to a gradual spread of its cultural influence eastward throughout Maritime Southeast Asia. Malay became the regional lingua franca of trade and many polities enculturated Islamic Malay customs and governance to varying degrees, including Kapampangans, Tagalogs and other coastal Philippine peoples. According to Bruneian folklore, around 1500 Sultan Bolkiah launched a successful northward expedition to break Tondo's monopoly as a regional entrepôt of Chinese trade and established Maynila (Selurong) across the Pasig delta, ruled by his heirs as a satellite.^[27]

Bruneian influence spread elsewhere around Manila Bay, present-day Batangas, and coastal Mindoro through closer trade and political relations, with a growing overseas Kapampangan-Tagalog population based in Brunei and beyond in Malacca in various professions as traders, sailors, shipbuilders, mercenaries, governors, and slaves.^[28][29]

Decline

Bruneian territorial losses from 1400 to 1890.

The rising power of the nearby Sultanate of Sulu occurred due to infighting between Bruneian nobles and the king. Brunei eventually lost its authority over the Bajaus and lapsed into a collection of riverine territories ruled by semi-autonomous chiefs.^[30]

By the end of 17th century, Brunei entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy.^[6] Brunei lost much of its territory due to the arrival of the western powers such as the Spanish in the Philippines, the Dutch in southern Borneo and the British in Labuan, Sarawak and North Borneo. By 1725, Brunei had many of its supply routes to the Sultanate of Sulu.^[31]

In 1888, Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin appealed to the British to stop further encroachment.^[32] In the same year, the British signed a "Treaty of Protection" and made Brunei a British protectorate,^[6] which lasted until 1984, when Brunei gained independence.^[33][34]

Government

The sultanate was divided into three traditional land systems known as kerajaan (crown property), kuripan (official property) and tulin (hereditary private property).^[35]

Historical accounts

Arab narratives

Arab travelers who explored the Malay Archipelago referred to Brunei as "Ka Selatanga," located to the east of Java and southwest of Luzon. Other Arab explorers called it "Zabaj" or "Zabaji," indicating a land known for producing camphor. Zabaj or Zabaji is said to be situated near the Thousand Islands in the Philippines. Ahmad ibn Majid, a notable Arab navigator who sailed through the Malay Archipelago, referred to Zabaj or Zabaji as "Barni," which corresponds to Brunei. Additionally, the South China Sea, which they navigated en route to China, was also named "Laut Barni" or "Brunei Sea."^[36]

The Arab explorers described Brunei's capital as a city built on water, with a hot climate which experienced tidal changes twice a day. They noted the presence of peacocks, monkeys, and talking cockatoos, which sported feathers in white, red, and yellow. The region was rich in natural resources, producing camphor, gold, spices, nutmeg, and sandalwood. The Arab travelers also recognised Brunei as a significant kingdom within the Malay Archipelago, boasting a strong military presence. Its naval bases were strategically located at crucial river estuaries, commanded by a Pengiran and his followers, who were responsible for maintaining the safety and security of the people and the state.^[36]

Most of Brunei's population resided around Brunei Bay, engaging in various occupations such as fishing and farming, while others became skilled sailors, brave warriors, and successful traders. According to Arab explorers, Brunei's port was safe, sheltered, and prosperous, attracting merchants from diverse backgrounds, including those from China, Java, Siam, Palembang, Kelantan, Pahang, Cambodia, Makassar, Pattani, and Suluk. During this period, the goods traded at Brunei's port included camphor, gemstones, wax, honey, pearls, gold, spices, pottery, silk, tin, rattan, and various foodstuffs. The bustling trade and the wide variety of goods exchanged at the port underscore Brunei's significance in the region's commerce and its connections with different cultures.^[36]

Chinese narratives

The histories of the Liang, Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties all indicate that Brunei and China had a cordial connection. Both kingdoms' kings often dispatched envoys from their respective areas with gifts and messages. At the same time, traders also came to the ports of both kingdoms to do business. Brunei–China relations deteriorated during the Yuan dynasty. Chinese rulers of the period prioritized war and territory conquest. Under Kublai Khan's leadership, a military expedition headed by General Su P'e was sent to the Malay Archipelago in 1292 AD with the goal of attacking many nations, including Brunei. But the invading army were effectively repulsed by Brunei's soldiers. Feeling embarrassed to go back home, the vanquished Chinese troops asked the King of Brunei for permission to reside in the Kinabatangan valley, which is part of Sabah and is governed by Brunei. They founded a hamlet there when the King accepted their request.^[14]

According to the histories of the Ming dynasty, in 1370 AD, a Chinese Emperor's ambassador on his way to Java made a halt in Brunei. The King of Brunei was titled Mahamosa, which is taken from the Chinese pronunciation of Sultan Muhammad Shah, according to this mission, which was headed by Sin Tze and Chang Ching Tze. According to Sin Tze the monarch was bold, powerful, and furious. But he also stated that Brunei's defenses were weakened because of the Suluk people's annihilation. Because of Brunei's poverty and continued tribute to Majapahit, Muhammad Shah was hesitant to follow Sin Tze's advice to seek protection from China and to deliver tribute. The Sultan eventually decided to send an embassy to China after being convinced by the envoy's logical arguments. Alongside the Chinese ambassador returning from Java in 1371, his delegation set ship for China.^[37]

Under the reign of Hongwu, the relationship between Brunei and China strengthened further. In 1375, a royal prince from China named Ong Sum Ping visited Brunei and eventually married Princess Ratna Dewi, the daughter of Muhammad Shah, earning the title Pengiran Maharaja Lela. Ong's brother also married Pengiran Bendahara Pateh Berbai. In 1397, during the reign of Jiawen, an envoy from Muhammad Shah visited China along with envoys from Annam, Siam, Java, Palembang, and Pahang. This time, the Brunei delegation was officially recognized as representing Brunei rather than P'oni, as the kingdom had relocated to Kota Batu.^[37] In 1402, the reigning king was Manajekana, also known as Sultan Abdul Majid. In 1403, the Sultan sent an envoy to inform the emperor of his father's passing. By 1405, he dispatched another envoy to request formal recognition from the emperor, who was pleased to receive this honour. In the same year, the emperor sent an official delegation led by Cheng Ho to Brunei, bringing royal seals and gifts as a gesture of goodwill.^[38]

During Abdul Majid's rule, Brunei's ties with China grew stronger. On August 20, 1408,^[39] the Sultan traveled to China with a retinue of 150 family members. After two months in China, he fell ill and died at the age of 28 October 1408, with his remains interred on the slopes of a hill named Shih-tzu Kang in Nanking. To fulfill Sultan Abdul Majid's wishes, the Chinese emperor appointed Hsia-wang, the Sultan's son, as the King of Brunei. After spending a year in China, Hsia-wang returned to Brunei, escorted by Chinese officials led by Chong Chien. During Hsia-wang’s absence, the throne was held by his uncle, Pateh Berbai, who took the title Sultan Ahmad, as Hsia-wang was only four years old at that time. Between 1415 and 1425, relations between Brunei and China remained stable, with Brunei sending four envoys to China during those years. However, after 1425, the relationship began to deteriorate, and it was not until 1530 that Brunei sent envoys to China again, alongside delegations from Siam, Champa, and Java.^[38]

European narratives

An Italian explorer, Antonio Pigafetta, stopped at Brunei in July 1521 on a return trip to Spain. He recorded that the Malays had been in Brunei for a long time and had a high level of civilization. Forts were built that mounted heavy guns and were equipped with horses and trained elephants. In the house of the Sultan, there were silver candlesticks and gold spoons on the table.^[40]

References

1. Museum, Sarawak (1999). The Sarawak Museum Journal. Sarawak Museum. p. 218.
2. Hussainmiya 2010, p. 67.
3. Yunos 2008.
4. Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1977, p. 129.
5. Andaya & Andaya 2015, p. 159.
6. CIA Factbook 2017.
7. Jamil Al-Sufri 2000.
8. "History of The Pedir Kingdom in Aceh". INDEPHEDIA.com. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
9. Kurz, Johannes L. (1 January 2013). "Pre-modern Chinese Sources in the National History of Brunei: The Case of Poli". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 169 (2–3): 213–243. doi:10.1163/22134379-12340030. (published in Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde / Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia).
10. Abdul Latif & Hassan 2007, p. 43.
11. Abdul Latif & Hassan 2007, p. 44.
12. Abdul Latif & Hassan 2007, p. 45.
13. Abdul Latif & Hassan 2007, p. 46.
14. Abdul Latif & Hassan 2007, p. 47.
15. Suyatno 2008.
16. Nicholl, Robert. "Brunei rediscovered: a survey of early times." Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 14, no. 1 (1983): 32–45.
17. Lach 1994, p. 580.
18. Saunders, Graham (2002). A History of Brunei (2nd ed.). London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 42. ISBN 9-781-1-36873-942.
19. Saunders 2013, p. 60.
20. Herbert & Milner 1989, p. 99.
21. Lea & Milward 2001, p. 16.
22. Hicks 2007, p. 34.
23. Church 2012, p. 16.
24. Eur 2002, p. 203.
25. Abdul Majid 2007, p. 2.
26. Welman 2013, p. 8.
27. Pusat Sejarah Brunei Archived 2015-04-15 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved February 07, 2009.
28. Pigafetta, Antonio (1969) [1524]. First voyage round the world. Translated by J.A. Robertson. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild.
29. Scott, William H. (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society. Katipunan Ave, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. p. 192. ISBN 971-550-135-4.
30. Andaya, Barbara Watson (1982). A History of Malaysia. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-0-312-38120-2.
31. de Vienne, Marie-Sybille (2015). Brunei: From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century. National University of Singapore Press. pp. 39–74. ISBN 9789971698188.
32. World Atlas 2017.
33. Abdul Majid 2007, p. 4.
34. Sidhu 2009, p. 92.
35. McArthur & Horton 1987, p. 102.
36. Abdul Latif & Hassan 2007, p. 50.
37. Abdul Latif & Hassan 2007, p. 48.
38. Abdul Latif & Hassan 2007, p. 49.
39. "Brunei's Sultan Abdul Majid and Chinese Emperor Yongle". Brunei's Sultan Abdul Majid and Chinese Emperor Yongle. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
40. Guillemard 1908, p. 215.

Sources

• Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 2A, The Indian Sub-Continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.
• Brunei Museum Journal (1986). The Brunei Museum Journal. Brunei Museum.
• McArthur, M.S.H.; Horton, A.V.M. (1987). Report on Brunei in 1904. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies, Center for Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 0-896-80135-7.
• Herbert, Patricia; Milner, Anthony Crothers (1989). South-East Asia: Languages and Literatures : a Select Guide. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1267-6.
• Jamil Al-Sufri; Awang Mohd. Zain (1990). Tarsilah Brunei: sejarah awal dan perkembangan Islam (in Malay). Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports.
• Juned, Abdul Aziz (1992). Islam di Brunei: zaman pemerintahan Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzuddin Waddaulah, Sultan dan Yang Di-Pertuan Negara Brunei Darussalam (in Malay). Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports.
• Lach, Donald F. (1994). Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I: The Century of Discovery. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-46732-0.
• Jamil Al-Sufri, Awang Mohd. Zain (2000). Tarsilah Brunei: The Early History of Brunei Up to 1432 AD. Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports. ISBN 978-99917-34-03-3.
• Lea, David; Milward, Colette (2001). A Political Chronology of South-East Asia and Oceania. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-85743-117-9.
• Eur (2002). The Far East and Australasia 2003. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-85743-133-9.
• Bala, Bilcher (2005). Thalassocracy: a history of the medieval Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam. School of Social Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah. ISBN 978-983-2643-74-6.
• Hicks, Nigel (2007). The Philippines. New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84537-663-5.
• Abdul Majid, Harun (2007). Rebellion in Brunei: The 1962 Revolt, Imperialism, Confrontation and Oil. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-423-7.
• Abdul Latif, Muhammad; Hassan, Zainuddin (2007). "Kerajaan Awal Brunei". Pusaka Majalah (in Malay). 14. Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports.
• Yunos, Rozan (2008). "The Sultan who thwarted Rajah Brooke". The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015.
• Suyatno (2008). "Naskah Nagarakretagama" (in Indonesian). National Library of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 23 May 2017. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
• History for Brunei Darussalam: Sharing our Past. Curriculum Development Department, Ministry of Education of Brunei Darussalam. 2009. ISBN 978-99917-2-372-3.
• Sidhu, Jatswan S. (2009). Historical Dictionary of Brunei Darussalam. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7078-9.
• Hussainmiya, B. A. (2010). "The Malay Identity in Brunei Darussalam and Sri Lanka" (PDF). Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2014.
• The Report: Sabah. Oxford Business Group. 2011. ISBN 978-1-907065-36-1.
• Church, Peter (2012). A Short History of South-East Asia. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-35044-7.
• Saunders, Graham (2013). A History of Brunei. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-87401-7.
• Welman, Frans (2013). Borneo Trilogy Brunei: Vol 1. Booksmango. ISBN 978-616-222-235-1.
• Kurz, Johannes L. (2014). "Boni in Chinese Sources: Translations of Relevant Texts from the Song to the Qing Dynasties" (PDF). Universiti Brunei Darussalam. National University of Singapore. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2014.
• Andaya, Barbara Watson; Andaya, Leonard Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400–1830. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6.
• CIA Factbook (2017). "The World Factbook – Brunei". Central Intelligence Agency.
• "Brunei Darussalam". World Atlas. 2017.
• Guillemard, Francis Henry Hill (1908). Volume 2 of Stanford's compendium of geography and travel - Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagoes. Edward Stanford.

Further reading

• Historical Atlas: History of Brunei
• Expanding Boundaries of Sarawak including territorial gains from the Sultanate of Brunei
• British treaties regarding North Borneo including cession agreement from the Sultanate of Brunei