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Revivals of ancient Roman polytheism have taken various forms in the modern era. These efforts seek to re-establish the traditional Roman cults and customs, often referred to as cultus deorum Romanorum (worship of the Roman gods), religio Romana (Roman religion), the Roman way to the gods (Via romana agli dei), Roman-Italic Religion, or Gentile Roman Religion. Several loosely affiliated organizations have emerged in the contemporary period.^[1]^[2]

History

Post classical period

Christianity was introduced late in Mani, with the first Greek temples converted into churches during the 11th century. Byzantine monk Nikon "the Metanoite" (Νίκων ὁ Μετανοείτε) was sent in the 10th century to convert the predominantly pagan Maniots. Although his preaching began the conversion process, it took over 200 years for the majority to accept Christianity fully by the 11th and 12th centuries. Patrick Leigh Fermor noted that the Maniots, isolated by mountains, were among the last Greeks to abandon the old religion, doing so towards the end of the 9th century:

Sealed off from outside influences by their mountains, the semi-troglodytic Maniots themselves were the last of the Greeks to be converted. They only abandoned the old religion of Greece towards the end of the ninth century. It is surprising to remember that this peninsula of rock, so near the heart of the Levant from which Christianity springs, should have been baptised three whole centuries after the arrival of St. Augustine in far-away Kent.^[3]

According to Constantine VII in De Administrando Imperio, the Maniots were referred to as 'Hellenes' and only fully Christianized in the 9th century, despite some church ruins from the 4th century indicating early Christian presence. The region's mountainous terrain allowed the Maniots to evade the Eastern Roman Empire's Christianization efforts, thus preserving pagan traditions, which coincided with significant years in the life of Gemistos Plethon.

Another safe area for the pagans was the city of Harran which, Despite the persecution of its pagan inhabitants by Byzantine Emperor Maurice, remained a largely pagan city well into the early Islamic period. When the city was besieged by the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate in 639–640, it was the pagan community that negotiated its peaceful surrender. Under the subsequent rule of the caliphates, Harran became a major settlement within the Diyar Mudar region and retained a significant degree of autonomy. During the First Fitna, the people of Harran sided with Mu'awiya I over Ali at the Battle of Siffin in 657, which allegedly resulted in a brutal retaliation by Ali, who massacred much of the population.^[4]

Under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Harran prospered and was selected as the capital by the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, from 744 to 750. This move may have been influenced by the city's pagan sympathies and its strategic position near the empire's eastern provinces.^[5] The city's prominence under Umayyad rule saw it grow as a cultural and scholarly center, with the establishment of the first Muslim university in 717 under Umar II, attracting scholars from across the Islamic world.^[6]

Although Harran lost its capital status under the Abbasid Caliphate, it continued to flourish, particularly during the reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–809), when its university became a key center for translation and intellectual activity.^[7] The local religion, blending elements of Mesopotamian paganism and Neoplatonism, persisted into the 10th century, though periodic decrees enforced conversions to Islam, especially under Al-Ma'mun in 830.^[8] Nonetheless, Harran retained its heterogeneity, with a population that included Muslims, Christians, Jews, and a variety of other religious groups.

Reinassance to Risorgimento

Interest in reviving ancient Roman religious traditions can be traced to the Renaissance, with figures such as Gemistus Pletho who influenced Cosimo de Medici to establish the Florentine Neoplatonic Academy and Julius Pomponius Laetus (student of Pletho) who advocated for a revival^[1] and established the Roman academy which secretly celebrated the Natale di Roma, a festival linked to the foundation of Rome, and celebrated the birthday of Romulus.^[9]^[10] The Academy was dissolved in 1468 when Pope Paul II ordered the arrest and execution of some of the members, Pope Sixtus IV allowed Laetus to open the academy again until the Sack of Rome of the 1527.

After the French Revolution, the French lawyer Gabriel André Aucler (mid 1700s–1815) adopted the name Quintus Nautius and sought to revive paganism, styling himself as its leader. He designed religious clothing and performed pagan rites at his home. In 1799, he published La Thréicie, presenting his religious views. His teachings were later analyzed by Gérard de Nerval in Les Illuminés (1852). ^[11] Admiring ancient Greece and ancient Rome, Aucler supported the French Revolution and saw it as a path to restoring an ancient republic.^[12] He took the name Quintus Nautius, claimed Roman priestly lineage, and performed Orphic rites at his home.^[13] His followers were mainly his household.^[11] In 1799, he published La Thréicie, advocating a revival of paganism in France, condemning Christianity, and promoting universal animation.^[14]

In his later years, Aucler published a poem that some interpret as a recantation of his beliefs. He died in 1815 in Bourges.^[15] His pagan rites influenced the occultist Lazare Lenain [fr], while Gérard de Nerval wrote an essay about him in Les Illuminés (1852).^[16]

During 19th-century Italy, the fall of the Papal States and the process of Italian unification fostered anti-clerical sentiment among the intelligentsia. Intellectuals like archaeologist Giacomo Boni^[17]Pagan and writer Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo promoted the restoration of Roman religious practices.^[18]^[19]

Modern era

Some religious revivalists were also involved in occultism, Pythagoreanism, and Freemasonry, including figures like Amedeo Rocco Armentano, Arturo Reghini, and Giulio Parise. In 1914, Reghini published Imperialismo Pagano (Pagan Imperialism), claiming an unbroken initiatory lineage in Italy that linked ancient Roman religion to modern times, via historical figures such as Numa Pompilius, Virgil, Dante Alighieri, and Giuseppe Mazzini.^[20]

The efforts to revive Roman cults aligned with the rise of the National Fascist Party, and several polytheists attempted to form alliances with fascism. However, the signing of the Lateran Treaty in 1929 by Benito Mussolini and Pope Pius XI left polytheists like Musmeci and Reghini disillusioned.^[18]^[21] Influenced by Reghini's work and the Ur Group, modern groups have emerged in Italy, including the Associazione Tradizionale Pietas (established in 2005) and the Roman Traditional Movement.

The public appeal for pre-Christian Roman spirituality in the years following fascism was largely driven by Julius Evola. By the late 1960s, a renewed "operational" interest in pagan Roman traditions emerged from youth circles around Evola, particularly concerning the experience of the Gruppo di Ur.^[22] Evola's writings incorporated concepts from outside classical Roman religion, such as Buddhism, Hinduism, sexual magic, and private ritual nudity. This period saw the rise of the Gruppo dei Dioscuri in cities like Rome, Naples, and Messina, which published a series of four booklets, including titles such as L'Impeto della vera cultura and Rivoluzione Tradizionale e Sovversione, before fading from public view.^[23]

Contrary to some claims of dissolution, particularly by Renato del Ponte, the group continued its activities after its founder's death in 2000, with its last public appearance being a conference titled "Oltre ogni distruzione – la Tradizione vive."^[24] Interest in ancient Roman religion also appeared in the Evolian magazine Arthos, founded in Genoa in 1972, directed by Renato del Ponte, who authored works like Dei e miti italici (1985) and La religione dei Romani (1993). In 1984, experiences from the Dioscuri were revisited in the Gruppo Arx led by Salvatore Ruta, a former member of the original group. Between 1984 and 1986, the Pythagorean Association, claimed to be a continuation of Arturo Reghini's original group, emerged in Calabria and Sicily, publishing the magazine Yghìeia until it ceased in 1988. Member Roberto Sestito then initiated various editorial activities, including the magazine Ignis (1990–1992) and the bulletin Il flauto di Pan (2000), though pagan-Roman themes were notably absent.^[25] The Genoese publisher Il Basilisco released numerous works in the Collana di Studi Pagani between 1979 and 1989, featuring texts by notable figures such as Simmaco, Porfirio, and emperor Julian. The theme of Roman Tradition also appeared in the journal Politica Romana (1994–2004) by the association Senatus, considered by many as a Roman-pagan, Pythagorean, and "Reghiniana" publication. A prominent activist during this time was actor Roberto Corbiletto, who died mysteriously in a lightning-related fire in 1999.

2000s

In the 2000s, Associazione Tradizionale Pietas began reconstructing temples across Italy and sought legal recognition from the state, drawing inspiration from similar groups like YSEE in Greece. In 2023, Pietas participated in the ECER meeting, resulting in the signing of the Riga Declaration, which calls for the recognition of European ethnic religions.^[26] Public rituals, such as those celebrating the ancient festival of the Natale di Roma, have also resumed in recent years.^[27]^[28]^[29]

The idea of practicing Roman religion in the modern era has spread beyond Italy, with practitioners found in countries across Europe and the Americas. The most prominent international organization is Nova Roma, founded in 1998, with active groups worldwide.^[30]

References

^ ^a ^b Marré, Davide (2008). "Tradizione Romana" [Roman tradition]. In Marré, Davide (ed.). L'Essenza del Neopaganesimo [The Essence of Neopaganism] (in Italian). Milan: Circolo dei Trivi. pp. 35–37.
^ Angelini, Andrea (22 January 2019). "The Roman Way To The Gods: The Ancients Are Back". Italics Magazine. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
^ Leigh Fermor, Patrick (1958). Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese. John Murray. p. 46.
^ Pingree 2002, p. 17.
^ Bosworth 2003, pp. 13–14.
^ Frew 1999.
^ Özdeniz et al. 1998, p. 478.
^ Pingree 2002, p. 23.
^ Raphael Volaterranus, in his Commentaries presented to Julius II, declared that the enthusiasms of these initiates were "the first step towards doing away with the Faith" (Pastor IV 1894:44).
^ "La 'conguira' degli umanisti: Platina e Pomponio Leto". Castel Sant'Angelo (in Italian). Rome: castelsantangelo.com. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
^ ^a ^b Lamoureux 1843, p. 397.
^ Gaume 1856, p. 208.
^ Gérardin & Gérardin 1974, p. 226.
^ Merkin 2014, p. 257.
^ Lamoureux 1843, p. 398.
^ Merkin 2014, pp. 257–258.
^ Parodo, Ciro (2016). "Roma antica e l'archeologia dei simboli nell'Italia fascista". Medea. doi:10.13125/medea-2415.
^ ^a ^b Giudice, Christian (2012). "Pagan Rome was Rebuilt in a Play: Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo and the Representation of Rumon". The Pomegranate. 14 (2): 212–232. doi:10.1558/pome.v14i2.212. ISSN 1743-1735.
^ Buscemi, Francesco (2019). "The Sin of Eating Meat: Fascism, Nazism and the Construction of Sacred Vegetarianism". In Gentilcore, David; Smith, Matthew (eds.). Proteins, Pathologies and Politics: Dietary Innovation and Disease from the Nineteenth Century. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-3500-5686-2.
^ Giudice, Christian (14 October 2016). Occultism and Traditionalism: Arturo Reghini and the Antimodern Reaction in Early Twentieth-Century Italy (PhD). University of Gothenburg. pp. 19–20. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
^ Lloyd Thomas, Dana (2006). "Reghini, Arturo". In Hanegraaff, Wouter (ed.). Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 979–980. ISBN 978-90-04-15231-1.
^ Giudice, Christian (2016). Occultism and Traditionalism: Arturo Reghini and the Antimodern Reaction in Early Twentieth-Century Italy. University of Gothenburg. pp. 19–20.
^ Del Ponte, Renato (1990). Studi su Evola e la Tradizione (Thesis). Indipendente.
^ "Oltre ogni distruzione". Retrieved 5 October 2024.
^ Casalino, Giandomenico (1999). Il culto romano. Indipendente.
^ "Riga Declaration | Search Results | ECER". 4 July 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
^ "PROGRAM". GRUPPO STORICO ROMANO. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
^ "Gruppo Storico Romano for the 2777th Natale di Roma". Turismo Roma (in Italian). 12 April 2024. Retrieved 4 May 2024.
^ "Natale di Roma all'ETRU". Museo ETRU (in Italian). Retrieved 4 May 2024.
^ Chryssides, George D. Historical Dictionary of New Religious Movements (2011, 2nd ed.).