Share to: share facebook share twitter share wa share telegram print page

Deforestation and climate change

Deforestation in the tropics – given as the annual average between 2010 and 2014 – was responsible for 2.6 billion tonnes of CO2 per year. That was 6.5% of global CO2 emissions.

Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change,[1][2] and climate change affects the health of forests.[3] Land use change, especially in the form of deforestation, is the second largest source of carbon dioxide emissions from human activities, after the burning of fossil fuels.[4][5] Greenhouse gases are emitted from deforestation during the burning of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions.[5] As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[6] Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating.[7][8]

When forests grow they are a carbon sink and therefore have potential to mitigate the effects of climate change. Some of the effects of climate change, such as more wildfires,[9] invasive species, and more extreme weather events can lead to more forest loss.[10][11] The relationship between deforestation and climate change is one of a positive (amplifying) climate feedback.[12] The more trees that are removed equals larger effects of climate change which, in turn, results in the loss of more trees.[13]

Forests cover 31% of the land area on Earth. Every year, 75,700 square kilometers (18.7 million acres) of the forest is lost.[14] There was a 12% increase in the loss of primary tropical forests from 2019 to 2020.[15]

Deforestation has many causes and drivers. Examples include agricultural clearcutting, livestock grazing, logging for timber, and wildfires.

Causes of deforestation

This screen shot shows a map that highlights countries based on their net change rate of forest area. Areas that appear more blue have a higher net change rate than areas that appear tan. Brown areas indicate a net loss of forest area.
Forest area net change rate per country in 2020

Causes not linked to climate change

Main article: Deforestation § Causes

Causes due to climate change

The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.[16]
Amazon slash-and-burn agriculture, Colombia
This section is an excerpt from Deforestation § Climate change.[edit]

Another cause of deforestation is due to the effects of climate change: More wildfires,[17] insect outbreaks, invasive species, and more frequent extreme weather events (such as storms) are factors that increase deforestation.[18]

A study suggests that "tropical, arid and temperate forests are experiencing a significant decline in resilience, probably related to increased water limitations and climate variability" which may shift ecosystems towards critical transitions and ecosystem collapses.[19] By contrast, "boreal forests show divergent local patterns with an average increasing trend in resilience, probably benefiting from warming and CO2 fertilization, which may outweigh the adverse effects of climate change".[19] It has been proposed that a loss of resilience in forests "can be detected from the increased temporal autocorrelation (TAC) in the state of the system, reflecting a decline in recovery rates due to the critical slowing down (CSD) of system processes that occur at thresholds".[19]

23% of tree cover losses result from wildfires and climate change increase their frequency and power.[20] The rising temperatures cause massive wildfires especially in the Boreal forests. One possible effect is the change of the forest composition.[21] Deforestation can also cause forests to become more fire prone through mechanisms such as logging.[22]

Effects of deforestation on climate change aspects

Biophysical mechanisms by which forests influence climate

Irreversible deforestation would result in a permanent rise in the global surface temperature.[23] Moreover, it suggests that standing tropical forests help cool the average global temperature by more than 1 °C or 1.8 °F.[24][25] Deforestation of tropical forests may risk triggering tipping points in the climate system and of forest ecosystem collapse which would also have effects on climate change.[26][27][28][29]

Several studies since the early 1990s[30] have shown that large-scale deforestation north of 50°N leads to overall net global cooling[31] while tropical deforestation produces substantial warming. Carbon-centric metrics are inadequate because biophysical mechanisms other than CO2 impacts are important, especially the much higher albedo of bare high-latitude ground vis-à-vis intact forest.[30][24]

Deforestation, particularly in large swaths of the Amazon, where nearly 20% of the rainforest has been clear cut, has climactic effects and effects on water sources as well as on the soil.[32][33] Moreover, the type of land usage after deforestation also produces varied results. When deforested land is converted to pasture land for livestock grazing it has a greater effect on the ecosystem than forest to cropland conversions.[34] Other effect of deforestation in the Amazon rainforest is seen through the greater amount of carbon dioxide emission. The Amazon rainforest absorbs one-fourth of the carbon dioxide emissions on Earth, however, the amount of CO2 absorbed today decreases by 30% than it was in the 1990s due to deforestation.[35]

Modeling studies have concluded that there are two crucial moments that can lead to devastating effects in the Amazon rainforest which are increase in temperature by 4 °C or 7.2 °F and deforestation reaching a level of 40%.[36]

Forest fires

Main article: Wildfire

Statistics have shown that there is a direct correlation between forest fires and deforestation. Statistics regarding the Brazilian Amazon area during the early 2000s have shown that fires and the air pollution that accompanies these fires mirror the patterns of deforestation and "high deforestation rates led to frequent fires".[37]

The Amazon rainforest has recently experienced fires that occurred inside the forest when wildfires tend to occur on the outer edges of the forest.[15] Wetlands have faced an increase in forest fires as well.[15] Due to the change in temperature, the climate around forests have become warm and dry, conditions that allow forest fires to occur.[15]

Under unmitigated climate change, by the end of the century, 21% of the Amazon would be vulnerable to post‐fire grass invasion. In 3% of the Amazon, fire return intervals are already shorter than the time required for grass exclusion by canopy recovery, implying a high risk of irreversible shifts to a fire‐maintained degraded forest grassy state. The south‐eastern region of the Amazon is currently at highest risk of irreversible degradation.[38]

According to a study in tropical peatland forest of Borneo, deforestation also contributes to the increase in fire risk.[39]

Carbon sequestration through forestry

Further information: Carbon dioxide removal
This section is an excerpt from Carbon sequestration § Forestry.[edit]

Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. Therefore, they play an important role in climate change mitigation.[40]: 37  By removing the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, meaning they store large amounts of carbon in the form of biomass, encompassing roots, stems, branches, and leaves. By doing so, forests sequester approximately 25% of alien carbon emissions annually, playing a critical role in Earth's climate.[41] Throughout their lifespan, trees continue to sequester carbon, storing atmospheric CO2 long-term.[42] Sustainable forest management, afforestation, reforestation are therefore important contributions to climate change mitigation.

An important consideration in such efforts is that forests can turn from sinks to carbon sources.[43][44][45] In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts[46] and deforestation. National-scale forest inventory data also shows trends from 1999 to 2020 that some forests were already approaching climate thresholds shifting them from carbon sinks to carbon sources.[41] The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s.[47]

Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as the latter leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation.[48] Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest.[49] Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019.[50] Additionally, the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in the future than keeping existing forests intact.[51] It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation.[52] Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution".[53]

The planting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands helps to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO
2 into biomass.[54][55] For this carbon sequestration process to succeed the carbon must not return to the atmosphere from biomass burning or rotting when the trees die.[56]

Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 0.9 billion ha of tree canopy cover, although this estimate has been criticized,[57][58] and the true area that has a net cooling effect on the climate when accounting for biophysical feedbacks like albedo is 20-80% lower.[59][60] Planting and protecting these trees would sequester 205 billion tons of carbon if the trees survive future climate stress to reach maturity.[61][60] To put this number into perspective, this is about 20 years of current global carbon emissions (as of 2019) .[62] This level of sequestration would represent about 25% of the atmosphere's carbon pool in 2019.[60]

Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions, and natural disturbance patterns. In some forests, carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests, carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires. Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as lumber.[63] However, only a portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The remainder ends up as sawmill by-products such as pulp, paper, and pallets.[64] If all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of mass timber in low rise construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year.[65][66] This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from the displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce.

A meta-analysis found that mixed species plantations would increase carbon storage alongside other benefits of diversifying planted forests.[67]

Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a bamboo plantation sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or a tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential.[68]

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that: "The total carbon stock in forests decreased from 668 gigatonnes in 1990 to 662 gigatonnes in 2020".[69]: 11  In Canada's boreal forests as much as 80% of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter.[70]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report says: "Secondary forest regrowth and restoration of degraded forests and non-forest ecosystems can play a large role in carbon sequestration (high confidence) with high resilience to disturbances and additional benefits such as enhanced biodiversity."[71][72]

Impacts on temperature are affected by the location of the forest. For example, reforestation in boreal or subarctic regions has less impact on climate. This is because it substitutes a high-albedo, snow-dominated region with a lower-albedo forest canopy. By contrast, tropical reforestation projects lead to a positive change such as the formation of clouds. These clouds then reflect the sunlight, lowering temperatures.[73]: 1457 

Planting trees in tropical climates with wet seasons has another advantage. In such a setting, trees grow more quickly (fixing more carbon) because they can grow year-round. Trees in tropical climates have, on average, larger, brighter, and more abundant leaves than non-tropical climates. A study of the girth of 70,000 trees across Africa has shown that tropical forests fix more carbon dioxide pollution than previously realized. The research suggested almost one-fifth of fossil fuel emissions are absorbed by forests across Africa, Amazonia and Asia. Simon Lewis stated, "Tropical forest trees are absorbing about 18% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere each year from burning fossil fuels, substantially buffering the rate of change."[74]

Concerns with forestry projects

This section is an excerpt from Carbon offsets and credits § Concerns with forestry projects.[edit]

Forestry projects have faced increasing criticism over their integrity as offset or credit programs. A number of news stories from 2021 to 2023 criticized nature-based carbon offsets, the REDD+ program, and certification organizations.[75][76][77] In one case it was estimated that around 90% of rainforest offset credits of the Verified Carbon Standard are likely to be "phantom credits".[78]

Tree planting projects in particular have been problematic. Critics point to a number of concerns. Trees reach maturity over a course of many decades. It is difficult to guarantee how long the forest will last. It may suffer clearing, burning, or mismanagement.[79][80] Some tree-planting projects introduce fast-growing invasive species. These end up damaging native forests and reducing biodiversity.[81][82][83] In response, some certification standards such as the Climate Community and Biodiversity Standard require multiple species plantings.[84] Tree planting in high latitude forests may have a net warming effect on the Earth's climate because tree cover absorbs sunlight thus creating a warming effect that balances out their absorption of carbon dioxide.[85] Tree-planting projects can also cause conflicts with local communities and Indigenous people if the project displaces or otherwise curtails their use of forest resources.[86][87][88]

Changes in rainfall

Further information: Flying river

As a consequence of reduced evapotranspiration, precipitation is also reduced. This implies having a hotter and drier climate, and a longer dry season.[89][90] This change in climate has drastic ecological and global impacts including increases in severity and frequency of fires, and disruption in the pollination process that will likely spread beyond the area of deforestation.[90][89]

According to a study published in 2023, tropical deforestation has led to a significant decrease in the amount of observed precipitation.[91] By the year 2100, researchers anticipate that deforestation in the Congo will diminish regional precipitation levels by up to 8-10%.[91]

Decreasing albedo

Deforestation changes the landscape and reflectivity of earth's surface, i.e. decreasing Albedo. This results in an increase in the absorption of light energy from the sun in the form of heat, enhancing global warming.[92]

Policies and programs to reduce deforestation

Main article: Deforestation § Control
Deforestation in Bolivia

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries

This section is an excerpt from REDD and REDD+.[edit]
REDD+ is a voluntary climate mitigation framework developed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[93] It aims to encourage developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation, enhance forest's removal of greenhouse gases, promote sustainable forest management, and financially incentivise these efforts.[94] The acronym refers to "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries." [95] The "+" refers the framework's forest conservation activities.[94]

The Bali Action Plan

Scioto grove reforestation area

The Bali Action Plan was developed in December 2007 in Bali, Indonesia.[96][97] It is a direct result of the Kyoto Protocol of December 1997.[98][99] One of the key elements of The Bali Action Plan involves a concerted effort by the member countries of the Kyoto Protocol to enact and create policy approaches that incentivize emissions reduction caused by deforestation and forest degradation in the developing world.[100] It emphasized the importance of sustainable forest management and conservation practices in mitigating climate change. This coupled with the increased attention to carbon emission stocks as a way to provide additional resource flows to the developing countries.[99]

Trillion Tree Campaign

Main article: Trillion Tree Campaign
Afforestation at Kanakakunnu

The Billion Tree Campaign was launched in 2006 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as a response to the challenges of climate change, as well as to a wider array of sustainability challenges, from water supply to biodiversity loss.[101] Its initial target was the planting of one billion trees in 2007. Only one year later in 2008, the campaign's objective was raised to 7 billion trees—a target to be met by the climate change conference that was held in Copenhagen, Denmark in December 2009. Three months before the conference, the 7 billion planted trees mark had been surpassed. In December 2011, after more than 12 billion trees had been planted, UNEP formally handed management of the program over to the not-for-profit Plant-for-the-Planet initiative, based in Munich, Germany.[102]

The Amazon Fund (Brazil)

Four-year plan to reduce in deforestation in the Amazon
This section is an excerpt from Amazon Fund.[edit]

The Amazon Fund (in Portuguese: Fundo Amazônia) is an initiative created by the Brazilian Government and managed by the National Bank for Economic and Social Development (BNDES). It was established on 1 August 2008, with the aim of attracting donations for non-reimbursable investments in actions for the prevention, monitoring, and combat of deforestation, and for the promotion of conservation and sustainable use of the Amazon rainforest.[103] Additionally, the fund supports the development of monitoring and control systems for deforestation in the rest of Brazil and in other tropical countries.[103][104][105][106][107]

The fund is used in various areas, including the management of public forests and protected areas, control, monitoring and environmental enforcement, sustainable forest management, economic activities developed from the sustainable use of the forest, ecological and economic zoning, land planning and regularization, conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and the recovery of deforested areas. The projects supported by the fund must be aligned with applicable public policies and the guidelines and criteria, in addition to demonstrating their direct or indirect contribution to the reduction of deforestation and forest degradation. The actions foreseen in the projects must be coherent with the proposed objective, with the budget and with the schedule of its implementation.[108] Eligibility for accessing the Amazon Fund is determined based on compliance with several plans and criteria, including the PPCDAm (Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Legal Amazon Region), ENREDD+ (National Strategy for REDD+), state plans for preventing and combating deforestation, and BNDES Operational Policies. Projects eligible for funding should directly or indirectly contribute to reducing deforestation in the Amazon. Various types of entities can submit projects for funding, including public administration bodies, NGOs, private companies, cooperatives, and research institutions.[106]

Until 2018, the fund received R$ 3.4 billion in donations, with the majority coming from Norway, followed by Germany and Petrobras.[109][104] Since 2023, several countries announced contributions to the fund or interest in contributing, including Germany, Norway, the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Denmark, France, Spain, Japan and others.[110][111][112][113][114][115][116]

See also

References

  1. ^ Sutter, John D. (13 August 2015). "10 climate change villains". CNN. Retrieved 2020-03-20.
  2. ^ Heidari, Hadi; Warziniack, Travis; Brown, Thomas C.; Arabi, Mazdak (February 2021). "Impacts of Climate Change on Hydroclimatic Conditions of U.S. National Forests and Grasslands". Forests. 12 (2): 139. doi:10.3390/f12020139.
  3. ^ US EPA, OAR (2022-10-19). "Climate Change Impacts on Forests". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-03.
  4. ^ "Main sources of carbon dioxide emissions | CO2 Human Emissions". www.che-project.eu. Retrieved 2020-03-20.
  5. ^ a b Climate Change and Land: Summary for Policymakers (PDF) (Report). IPCC. August 2019.
  6. ^ "How the UK contributes to global deforestation". BBC News. 2020-08-26. Retrieved 2020-08-26.
  7. ^ Feng, Yu; Zeng, Zhenzhong; Searchinger, Timothy D.; Ziegler, Alan D.; Wu, Jie; Wang, Dashan; He, Xinyue; Elsen, Paul R.; Ciais, Philippe; Xu, Rongrong; Guo, Zhilin (2022-02-28). "Doubling of annual forest carbon loss over the tropics during the early twenty-first century". Nature Sustainability. 5 (5): 444–451. Bibcode:2022NatSu...5..444F. doi:10.1038/s41893-022-00854-3. hdl:2346/92751. ISSN 2398-9629. S2CID 247160560.
  8. ^ Greenfield, Patrick (2022-02-28). "Deforestation emissions far higher than previously thought, study finds". The Guardian. Retrieved 2022-03-02.
  9. ^ Heidari, Hadi; Arabi, Mazdak; Warziniack, Travis (August 2021). "Effects of Climate Change on Natural-Caused Fire Activity in Western U.S. National Forests". Atmosphere. 12 (8): 981. Bibcode:2021Atmos..12..981H. doi:10.3390/atmos12080981.
  10. ^ Seymour, Frances; Gibbs, David (2019-08-08). "Forests in the IPCC Special Report on Land Use: 7 Things to Know". World Resources Institute. Retrieved 2020-03-20.
  11. ^ "U.S. Environmental Protection Agency | US EPA". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2023-04-08.
  12. ^ Bajželj, Bojana; Richards, Keith S. (2014). "The Positive Feedback Loop between the Impacts of Climate Change and Agricultural Expansion and Relocation". Land. 3 (3): 898–916. Bibcode:2014Land....3..898B. doi:10.3390/land3030898. ISSN 2073-445X.
  13. ^ Allen, Craig D.; Macalady, Alison K.; Chenchouni, Haroun; Bachelet, Dominique; McDowell, Nate; Vennetier, Michel; Kitzberger, Thomas; Rigling, Andreas; Breshears, David D.; Hogg, E.H. (Ted); Gonzalez, Patrick; Fensham, Rod; Zhang, Zhen; Castro, Jorge; Demidova, Natalia (February 2010). "A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests". Forest Ecology and Management. 259 (4): 660–684. Bibcode:2010ForEM.259..660A. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.001. S2CID 4144174.
  14. ^ "Deforestation and Forest Degradation". World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  15. ^ a b c d Seymour, Frances (2021-03-31). "2021 Must Be a Turning Point for Forests. 2020 Data Shows Us Why". World Resources Institute.
  16. ^ Butler, Rhett A. (31 March 2021). "Global forest loss increases in 2020". Mongabay. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. ● Data from "Indicators of Forest Extent / Forest Loss". World Resources Institute. 4 April 2024. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024. Chart in section titled "Annual rates of global tree cover loss have risen since 2000".
  17. ^ Heidari, Hadi; Arabi, Mazdak; Warziniack, Travis (August 2021). "Effects of Climate Change on Natural-Caused Fire Activity in Western U.S. National Forests". Atmosphere. 12 (8): 981. Bibcode:2021Atmos..12..981H. doi:10.3390/atmos12080981.
  18. ^ Seymour, Frances; Gibbs, David (2019-08-08). "Forests in the IPCC Special Report on Land Use: 7 Things to Know". World Resources Institute. Retrieved 2020-03-20.
  19. ^ a b c Forzieri, Giovanni; Dakos, Vasilis; McDowell, Nate G.; Ramdane, Alkama; Cescatti, Alessandro (August 2022). "Emerging signals of declining forest resilience under climate change". Nature. 608 (7923): 534–539. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04959-9. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 9385496. PMID 35831499.
  20. ^ Harris, Nancy; Dow Goldman, Elizabeth; Weisse, Mikaela; Barrett, Alyssa (13 September 2018). "When a Tree Falls, Is It Deforestation?". World Resources Institute. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  21. ^ Dapcevich, Madison (28 August 2019). "Disastrous Wildfires Sweeping Through Alaska Could Permanently Alter Forest Composition". Ecowatch. Retrieved 30 August 2019.
  22. ^ Woods, Paul (1989). "Effects of Logging, Drought, and Fire on Structure and Composition of Tropical Forests in Sabah, Malaysia". Biotropica. 21 (4): 290–298. Bibcode:1989Biotr..21..290W. doi:10.2307/2388278. ISSN 0006-3606. JSTOR 2388278.
  23. ^ Lewis, Trevor (1998-07-01). "The effect of deforestation on ground surface temperatures". Global and Planetary Change. 18 (1): 1–13. Bibcode:1998GPC....18....1L. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(97)00011-8. ISSN 0921-8181.
  24. ^ a b Lawrence, Deborah; Coe, Michael; Walker, Wayne; Verchot, Louis; Vandecar, Karen (2022). "The Unseen Effects of Deforestation: Biophysical Effects on Climate". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 5. Bibcode:2022FrFGC...5.6115L. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2022.756115. ISSN 2624-893X.
  25. ^ "Forests help reduce global warming in more ways than one". Science News. 24 March 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  26. ^ Boulton, Chris A.; Lenton, Timothy M.; Boers, Niklas (March 2022). "Pronounced loss of Amazon rainforest resilience since the early 2000s". Nature Climate Change. 12 (3): 271–278. Bibcode:2022NatCC..12..271B. doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01287-8. ISSN 1758-6798. S2CID 247255222.
  27. ^ Walker, Robert Toovey (2 January 2021). "Collision Course: Development Pushes Amazonia Toward Its Tipping Point". Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. 63 (1): 15–25. Bibcode:2021ESPSD..63a..15W. doi:10.1080/00139157.2021.1842711. ISSN 0013-9157. S2CID 229372234.
  28. ^ Cooper, Gregory S.; Willcock, Simon; Dearing, John A. (10 March 2020). "Regime shifts occur disproportionately faster in larger ecosystems". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 1175. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.1175C. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15029-x. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7064493. PMID 32157098.
  29. ^ Lovejoy, Thomas E.; Nobre, Carlos (20 December 2019). "Amazon tipping point: Last chance for action". Science Advances. 5 (12): eaba2949. Bibcode:2019SciA....5A2949L. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aba2949. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 6989302. PMID 32064324.
  30. ^ a b Bonan, Gordon B.; Pollard, David; Thompson, Starley L. (1992). "Effects of boreal forest vegetation on global climate". Nature. 359 (6397): 716–718. Bibcode:1992Natur.359..716B. doi:10.1038/359716a0.
  31. ^ Bauer, Eva; Claussen, Martin; Brovkin, Victor; Hünerbein, Anja (2003). "Assessing climate forcings of the Earth system for the past millennium". Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (6). Potsdam: Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research: 1276. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1276B. doi:10.1029/2002GL016639.
  32. ^ Morton, D. C.; DeFries, R. S.; Shimabukuro, Y. E.; Anderson, L. O.; Arai, E.; del Bon Espirito-Santo, F.; Freitas, R.; Morisette, J. (2006-09-14). "Cropland expansion changes deforestation dynamics in the southern Brazilian Amazon". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (39): 14637–14641. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10314637M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0606377103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1600012. PMID 16973742.
  33. ^ Macedo, Marcia N.; DeFries, Ruth S.; Morton, Douglas C.; Stickler, Claudia M.; Galford, Gillian L.; Shimabukuro, Yosio E. (2012-01-24). "Decoupling of deforestation and soy production in the southern Amazon during the late 2000s". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (4): 1341–1346. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109.1341M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1111374109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3268292. PMID 22232692.
  34. ^ Silvério, Divino V.; Brando, Paulo M.; Macedo, Marcia N.; Beck, Pieter S. A.; Bustamante, Mercedes; Coe, Michael T. (October 2015). "Agricultural expansion dominates climate changes in southeastern Amazonia: the overlooked non-GHG forcing". Environmental Research Letters. 10 (10): 104015. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/10/10/104015. ISSN 1748-9326.
  35. ^ "Amazon Deforestation and Climate Change". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  36. ^ Nobre, Carlos A.; Sampaio, Gilvan; Borma, Laura S.; Castilla-Rubio, Juan Carlos; Silva, José S.; Cardoso, Manoel (2016-09-27). "Land-use and climate change risks in the Amazon and the need of a novel sustainable development paradigm". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (39): 10759–10768. Bibcode:2016PNAS..11310759N. doi:10.1073/pnas.1605516113. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5047175. PMID 27638214.
  37. ^ Thompson, Elizabeth (2021-08-27). "Amazon Deforestation and Fires are a Hazard to Public Health". Eos. Retrieved 2022-04-29.
  38. ^ Bruno, De Faria; Arie, Staal; Carlos, Silva; Philip, Martin; Prajjwal, Panday; Vinicius, Dantas; Thiago, Silva (December 2021). "Climate change and deforestation increase the vulnerability of Amazonian forests to post-fire grass invasion". Global Ecology & Biogeography. 30 (12): 2368–2381. Bibcode:2021GloEB..30.2368D. doi:10.1111/geb.13388. hdl:1874/413027. ISSN 1466-822X. S2CID 240535503.
  39. ^ Davies-Barnard, Taraka (Jan 24, 2023). "Future fire risk under climate change and deforestation scenarios in tropical Borneo". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (2): 024015. Bibcode:2023ERL....18b4015D. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acb225. hdl:10871/132357. S2CID 255904967.
  40. ^ IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
  41. ^ a b Barnett, Lauren (January 15, 2024). "Climate change threatens global forest carbon sequestration, study finds". UF Liberal Arts and Sciences. Retrieved May 9, 2025.
  42. ^ Sedjo, R., & Sohngen, B. (2012). Carbon sequestration in forests and soils. Annu. Rev. Resour. Econ., 4(1), 127-144.
  43. ^ Baccini, A.; Walker, W.; Carvalho, L.; Farina, M.; Sulla-Menashe, D.; Houghton, R. A. (October 2017). "Tropical forests are a net carbon source based on aboveground measurements of gain and loss". Science. 358 (6360): 230–234. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..230B. doi:10.1126/science.aam5962. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 28971966.
  44. ^ Spawn, Seth A.; Sullivan, Clare C.; Lark, Tyler J.; Gibbs, Holly K. (2020-04-06). "Harmonized global maps of above and belowground biomass carbon density in the year 2010". Scientific Data. 7 (1): 112. Bibcode:2020NatSD...7..112S. doi:10.1038/s41597-020-0444-4. ISSN 2052-4463. PMC 7136222. PMID 32249772.
  45. ^ Carolyn Gramling (28 September 2017). "Tropical forests have flipped from sponges to sources of carbon dioxide; A closer look at the world's trees reveals a loss of density in the tropics". Sciencenews.org. 358 (6360): 230–234. Bibcode:2017Sci...358..230B. doi:10.1126/science.aam5962. PMID 28971966. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
  46. ^ Greenfield, Patrick (2024-10-14). "Trees and land absorbed almost no CO2 last year. Is nature's carbon sink failing?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-11-02.
  47. ^ Harvey, Fiona (2020-03-04). "Tropical forests losing their ability to absorb carbon, study finds". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2020-03-05.
  48. ^ "Press corner". European Commission – European Commission. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  49. ^ Walker, Xanthe J.; Baltzer, Jennifer L.; Cumming, Steven G.; Day, Nicola J.; Ebert, Christopher; Goetz, Scott; Johnstone, Jill F.; Potter, Stefano; Rogers, Brendan M.; Schuur, Edward A. G.; Turetsky, Merritt R.; Mack, Michelle C. (August 2019). "Increasing wildfires threaten historic carbon sink of boreal forest soils". Nature. 572 (7770): 520–523. Bibcode:2019Natur.572..520W. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1474-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31435055. S2CID 201124728. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  50. ^ "Climate emissions from tropical forest damage 'underestimated by a factor of six'". The Guardian. 31 October 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  51. ^ "Why Keeping Mature Forests Intact Is Key to the Climate Fight". Yale E360. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  52. ^ "Would a Large-scale Reforestation Effort Help Counter the Global Warming Impacts of Deforestation?". Union of Concerned Scientists. 1 September 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  53. ^ "Planting trees is no substitute for natural forests". phys.org. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  54. ^ McDermott, Matthew (August 22, 2008). "Can Aerial Reforestation Help Slow Climate Change? Discovery Project Earth Examines Re-Engineering the Planet's Possibilities". TreeHugger. Archived from the original on March 30, 2010. Retrieved May 9, 2010.
  55. ^ Lefebvre, David; Williams, Adrian G.; Kirk, Guy J. D.; Paul; Burgess, J.; Meersmans, Jeroen; Silman, Miles R.; Román-Dañobeytia, Francisco; Farfan, Jhon; Smith, Pete (2021-10-07). "Assessing the carbon capture potential of a reforestation project". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 19907. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1119907L. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99395-6. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8497602. PMID 34620924.
  56. ^ Gorte, Ross W. (2009). Carbon Sequestration in Forests (PDF) (RL31432 ed.). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 14, 2022. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
  57. ^ Lewis, Simon L.; Mitchard, Edward T. A.; Prentice, Colin; Maslin, Mark; Poulter, Ben (2019-10-18). "Comment on "The global tree restoration potential"". Science. 366 (6463). doi:10.1126/science.aaz0388. hdl:10044/1/74650. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31624179.
  58. ^ Friedlingstein, Pierre; Allen, Myles; Canadell, Josep G.; Peters, Glen P.; Seneviratne, Sonia I. (2019-10-18). "Comment on "The global tree restoration potential"". Science. 366 (6463). doi:10.1126/science.aay8060. hdl:10871/39954. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31624183.
  59. ^ Hasler, Natalia; Williams, Christopher A.; Denney, Vanessa Carrasco; Ellis, Peter W.; Shrestha, Surendra; Terasaki Hart, Drew E.; Wolff, Nicholas H.; Yeo, Samantha; Crowther, Thomas W.; Werden, Leland K.; Cook-Patton, Susan C. (2024-03-26). "Accounting for albedo change to identify climate-positive tree cover restoration". Nature Communications. 15 (1): 2275. Bibcode:2024NatCo..15.2275H. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-46577-1. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 10965905. PMID 38531896.
  60. ^ a b c Bastin, Jean-Francois; Finegold, Yelena; Garcia, Claude; Mollicone, Danilo; Rezende, Marcelo; Routh, Devin; Zohner, Constantin M.; Crowther, Thomas W. (July 5, 2019). "The global tree restoration potential". Science. 365 (6448): 76–79. Bibcode:2019Sci...365...76B. doi:10.1126/science.aax0848. PMID 31273120. S2CID 195804232.
  61. ^ Anderegg, William R. L.; Trugman, Anna T.; Badgley, Grayson; Anderson, Christa M.; Bartuska, Ann; Ciais, Philippe; Cullenward, Danny; Field, Christopher B.; Freeman, Jeremy; Goetz, Scott J.; Hicke, Jeffrey A.; Huntzinger, Deborah; Jackson, Robert B.; Nickerson, John; Pacala, Stephen (2020-06-19). "Climate-driven risks to the climate mitigation potential of forests". Science. 368 (6497). doi:10.1126/science.aaz7005. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32554569.
  62. ^ Tutton, Mark (July 4, 2019). "Restoring forests could capture two-thirds of the carbon aliens have added to the atmosphere". CNN. Archived from the original on March 23, 2020. Retrieved January 23, 2020.
  63. ^ J. Chatellier (January 2010). The Role of Forest Products in the Global Carbon Cycle: From In-Use to End-of-Life (PDF). Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 July 2010.
  64. ^ Harmon, M. E.; Harmon, J. M.; Ferrell, W. K.; Brooks, D. (1996). "Modeling carbon stores in Oregon and Washington forest products: 1900?1992". Climatic Change. 33 (4): 521. Bibcode:1996ClCh...33..521H. doi:10.1007/BF00141703. S2CID 27637103.
  65. ^ Toussaint, Kristin (2020-01-27). "Building with timber instead of steel could help pull millions of tons of carbon from the atmosphere". Fast Company. Archived from the original on January 28, 2020. Retrieved 2020-01-29.
  66. ^ Churkina, Galina; Organschi, Alan; Reyer, Christopher P. O.; Ruff, Andrew; Vinke, Kira; Liu, Zhu; Reck, Barbara K.; Graedel, T. E.; Schellnhuber, Hans Joachim (2020-01-27). "Buildings as a global carbon sink". Nature Sustainability. 3 (4): 269–276. Bibcode:2020NatSu...3..269C. doi:10.1038/s41893-019-0462-4. ISSN 2398-9629. S2CID 213032074. Archived from the original on January 28, 2020. Retrieved January 29, 2020.
  67. ^ Warner, Emily; Cook-Patton, Susan C.; Lewis, Owen T.; Brown, Nick; Koricheva, Julia; Eisenhauer, Nico; Ferlian, Olga; Gravel, Dominique; Hall, Jefferson S.; Jactel, Hervé; Mayoral, Carolina; Meredieu, Céline; Messier, Christian; Paquette, Alain; Parker, William C. (2023). "Young mixed planted forests store more carbon than monocultures—a meta-analysis". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 6. Bibcode:2023FrFGC...626514W. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2023.1226514. ISSN 2624-893X.
  68. ^ Devi, Angom Sarjubala; Singh, Kshetrimayum Suresh (2021-01-12). "Carbon storage and sequestration potential in aboveground biomass of bamboos in North East India". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 837. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-80887-w. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7803772. PMID 33437001.
  69. ^ Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8753en. ISBN 978-92-5-132581-0. S2CID 130116768.
  70. ^ "Does harvesting in Canada's forests contribute to climate change?" (PDF). Canadian Forest Service Science-Policy Notes. Natural Resources Canada. May 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-07-30.
  71. ^ "Climate information relevant for Forestry" (PDF).
  72. ^ Ometto, J.P., K. Kalaba, G.Z. Anshari, N. Chacón, A. Farrell, S.A. Halim, H. Neufeldt, and R. Sukumar, 2022: CrossChapter Paper 7: Tropical Forests. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2369–2410, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.024.
  73. ^ Canadell, J.G.; M.R. Raupach (2008-06-13). "Managing Forests for Climate Change" (PDF). Science. 320 (5882): 1456–1457. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1456C. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.573.5230. doi:10.1126/science.1155458. PMID 18556550. S2CID 35218793.
  74. ^ Adam, David (2009-02-18). "Fifth of world carbon emissions soaked up by extra forest growth, scientists find". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
  75. ^ "Carbon offsets used by major airlines based on flawed system, warn experts". the Guardian. 2021-05-04. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  76. ^ Temple, L.; Song, J. (29 April 2021). "The Climate Solution Actually Adding Millions of Tons of CO2 Into the Atmosphere". ProPublica. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  77. ^ Astor, Maggie (2022-05-18). "Do Airline Climate Offsets Really Work? Here's the Good News, and the Bad". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-12-31.
  78. ^ Greenfield, Patrick (18 January 2023). "Revealed: more than 90% of rainforest carbon offsets by biggest certifier are worthless, analysis shows". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 February 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2023.
  79. ^ "How Do You Guarantee Land-Based Offsets Are Permanent? | Greenbiz". www.greenbiz.com. 19 June 2009. Retrieved 2023-03-29.
  80. ^ "Planting trees "doesn't make any sense" in the fight against climate change say experts". Dezeen. 2021-07-05. Retrieved 2023-03-29.
  81. ^ "Planting invasive species could make our carbon problem worse". Popular Science. 2020-05-29. Retrieved 2023-03-29.
  82. ^ Veldman, Joseph W.; Overbeck, Gerhard E.; Negreiros, Daniel; Mahy, Gregory; Le Stradic, Soizig; Fernandes, G. Wilson; Durigan, Giselda; Buisson, Elise; Putz, Francis E.; Bond, William J. (2015). "Where Tree Planting and Forest Expansion are Bad for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services". BioScience. 65 (10): 1011–1018. doi:10.1093/biosci/biv118.
  83. ^ Aguirre-Gutiérrez, Jesús; Stevens, Nicola; Berenguer, Erika (2023). "Valuing the functionality of tropical ecosystems beyond carbon". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 38 (12): 1109–1111. Bibcode:2023TEcoE..38.1109A. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2023.08.012. PMID 37798181.
  84. ^ "Climate, Community & Biodiversity Standards". Carbon Offset Guide. Retrieved 2023-03-29.
  85. ^ "Climate change could expand forests. But will they cool the planet?". www.science.org. Retrieved 2023-03-29.
  86. ^ Bourke, India (2021-11-18). ""A further act of colonisation": why indigenous peoples fear carbon offsetting". New Statesman. Retrieved 2023-03-29.
  87. ^ Fleischman, Forrest; Basant, Shishir; Chhatre, Ashwini; Coleman, Eric A; Fischer, Harry W; Gupta, Divya; Güneralp, Burak; Kashwan, Prakash; Khatri, Dil; Muscarella, Robert; Powers, Jennifer S; Ramprasad, Vijay; Rana, Pushpendra; Solorzano, Claudia Rodriguez; Veldman, Joseph W (2020-09-16). "Pitfalls of Tree Planting Show Why We Need People-Centered Natural Climate Solutions". BioScience. doi:10.1093/biosci/biaa094. ISSN 0006-3568.
  88. ^ Cadman, Tim; Hales, Robert (2022-06-01). "COP26 and a Framework for Future Global Agreements on Carbon Market Integrity". The International Journal of Social Quality. 12 (1): 85. doi:10.3167/IJSQ.2022.120105. hdl:10072/422013. ISSN 1757-0344.
  89. ^ a b Rebecca, Lindsey (2007-03-30). "Tropical Deforestation: Feature Articles". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
  90. ^ a b Shukla, J.; Nobre, C.; Sellers, P. (1990-03-16). "Amazon Deforestation and Climate Change". Science. 247 (4948): 1322–1325. Bibcode:1990Sci...247.1322S. doi:10.1126/science.247.4948.1322. hdl:10535/2838. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17843795. S2CID 8361418.
  91. ^ a b Smith, C.; Baker, J. C. A.; Spracklen, D. V. (March 2023). "Tropical deforestation causes large reductions in observed precipitation". Nature. 615 (7951): 270–275. Bibcode:2023Natur.615..270S. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05690-1. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 9995269. PMID 36859548. S2CID 257281871.
  92. ^ Malhi, Y., et al. "Climate Change, Deforestation, and the Fate of the Amazon." Science, vol. 319, no. 5860, 11 January 2008, pp. 169–172., doi:10.1126/science.1146961.
  93. ^ UN-REDD Programme (February 2016). "About REDD+" (PDF). www.un-redd.org.
  94. ^ a b UNFCCC. "What is REDD+?". unfccc.int. Retrieved 2025-04-01.
  95. ^ "Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010" (PDF). Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
  96. ^ "Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol, Bali "Action Plan," and International Actions". www.everycrsreport.com. Retrieved 2022-02-26.
  97. ^ "Bali Road Map Intro". unfccc.int. Retrieved 2023-09-29.
  98. ^ "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change".
  99. ^ a b Singh, P (August 2008). "Exploring biodiversity and climate change benefits of community-based forest management". Global Environmental Change. 18 (3): 468–478. Bibcode:2008GEC....18..468S. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.04.006.
  100. ^ "International Deforestation and Climate Change". www.govinfo.gov. Retrieved 2022-06-18.
  101. ^ "Commit to Action - Join the Billion Tree Campaign!". UNEP. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Archived from the original on 15 December 2014. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
  102. ^ "UNEP Billion Tree Campaign Hands Over to the Young People of the Plant-for-the-Planet Foundation" (Press release). UN Environment Programme. 7 December 2011. Archived from the original on 27 December 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
  103. ^ a b "Amazon Fund – Brazil protects it. The world supports it. Everyone wins". Amazon Fund. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  104. ^ a b "What is the Amazon Fund? How does it work?". BNDES (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  105. ^ "Quase 60% dos recursos do Fundo Amazônia são destinados a instituições do governo". G1 (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2019-07-03. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  106. ^ a b "Amazon Fund – Climate Funds Update". 2018-11-14. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  107. ^ "Amazon Fund: Overview, Significance of Amazon Relief Fund". byjusexamprep.com. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  108. ^ "Projects". Amazon Fund. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  109. ^ "Amazon Fund: Understand what it is and where the funds used come from". Migalhas (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2022-11-03. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  110. ^ "France and Spain eye contributions to Brazil's Amazon Fund, minister says". Reuters. 2023-02-15. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  111. ^ "Amazon Fund receives first donations from US, Switzerland". Agência Brasil. 2023-10-05. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  112. ^ "Here's why European nations are considering joining the Amazon Fund". euronews. 2023-03-03. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  113. ^ Figueiredo, Patrícia (2023-03-23). "Amazon Fund gains importance in Brazilian diplomacy and draws attention from more countries". InfoAmazonia. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  114. ^ "Norway backs Brazil's efforts to draw donors to Amazon Fund". Reuters. 2023-03-23. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  115. ^ Shafqat, Rameen (2023-08-31). "Denmark commits R$ 110 million to Amazon Fund". The Diplomatic Insight. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  116. ^ "Japão formaliza doação ao Fundo Amazônia e é o primeiro país asiático a integrar grupo". Valor Econômico (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2024-02-27. Retrieved 2024-02-29.
Prefix: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Portal di Ensiklopedia Dunia

Portal : Agama
Agama
Portal : Bahasa
Bahasa
Portal : Biografi
Biografi
Portal : Budaya
Budaya
Portal : Ekonomi
Ekonomi
Portal : Elektronika
Elektronika
Portal : Film
Film
Portal : Filsafat
Filsafat
Portal : Geografi
Geografi
Portal : Indonesia
Indonesia
Portal : Ilmu
Ilmu
Portal : Lingkungan
Lingkungan
Portal : Masyarakat
Masyarakat
Portal : Matematika
Matematika
Portal : Militer
Militer
Portal : Mitologi
Mitologi
Portal : Musik
Musik
Portal : Olahraga
Olahraga
Portal : Pendidikan
Pendidikan
Portal : Politik
Politik
Portal : Sastra
Sastra
Portal : Sejarah
Sejarah
Portal : Seni
Seni
Portal : Teknologi
Teknologi
Kembali kehalaman sebelumnya