The economy of Telangana is the ninth-largest in India, with a gross state domestic product (GSDP) of ₹13,972,071 million (equivalent to ₹16 trillion or US$200 billion in 2023) and has a GSDP per capita of ₹417,000 (equivalent to ₹420,000 or US$5,000 in 2023).[15][16] Telangana scored 0.705 on the Human Development Index during 2017-2018.[10]
According to Jayadheer Tirumala Rao, a scholar of history, the name Telangana is of Gondi origin. Rao asserts that it is derived from "Telangadh", which means "south" in Gondi and has been referred in "Gond script dating back to about 2000 years".[19]
One of the earliest uses of a word similar to Telangana can also be seen in a name of Malik Maqbul Tilangani (14th century CE), who was called the Tilangani, which implies that he was from Telangana. He was the commander of the Warangal Fort (Kataka Pāludu) and later Wazir— Minister under Firuz Shah Tughlaq.[20][21]
A 16th-century travel writer, Firishta, recorded in his book:
During the just reign of Ibrahim Kootb Shah, Tulingana, like Egypt, became the mart of the whole world. Merchants from Toorkistan, Arabia, and Persia resorted to it; and they met with such encouragement that they found in it inducements to return frequently. The greatest luxuries from foreign parts daily abounded at the king's hospitable board.[22]
The word "Telinga" changed over time to "Telangana" and the name "Telangana" was designated to distinguish the predominantly Telugu-speaking region of the erstwhile Hyderabad State from its predominantly Marathi-speaking one, Marathwada. It is also called "The land of Telugu people". After Asaf Jahi's ceded the Seemandhra region to the British, the rest of the Telugu region retained the name Telangana and the other parts were called Madras Presidency's Circars and Ceded.[23]
Following the Indian Independence in 1947—the Hyderabad state joined the Union of India in 1948 after a police action. In 1956, the Hyderabad State was dissolved—and its Telugu speaking region Telangana was merged with the Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh. A peasant-driven movement began to advocate for separation from Andhra Pradesh starting in the early 1950s, and continued until Telangana was granted statehood on 2 June 2014.[26]
The historic city Golconda in Hyderabad established itself as a diamond trading centre, and until the end of the 19th century, the Golconda market was the primary source of the finest and largest diamonds in the world. Thus, the legendary name Golconda Diamonds became synonymous with Golconda itself.
From 230 BCE to 220 CE, the Satavahana dynasty became the dominant power in this area. It originated from the lands between the Godavari and Krishna rivers and was based at Amaravathi and Dharanikota.[27] After the decline of the Satavahanas, various dynasties, such as the Vakataka, Vishnukundina, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta and Western Chalukya, ruled the area.[28]
Ramagiri Fort ruins at Begampet in Peddapalli district is an ancient fort initially built by the Sathavahanas and modified many times by other dynasties until the 16th century.Kota Gullu, temple ruins built in the 12th century by Kakatiyas at Ghanpur, Mulug in Warangal district.
The Telangana area experienced its golden age during the reign of the Kakatiya dynasty, which ruled most parts of the present-day Andhra Pradesh and Telangana from 1083 to 1323 CE.[28]Rudrama Devi and Prataparudra II were prominent rulers from the Kakatiya dynasty. The dynasty weakened with the attack of Malik Kafur in 1309 and was dissolved after the defeat of Prataparudra by the forces of Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1323.[29][30]
The area came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century, followed by the Bahmani Sultanate. Quli Qutb Mulk, a governor of Golconda, revolted against the Bahmani Sultanate and established the Qutb Shahi dynasty in 1518. On 21 September 1687, the Golconda Sultanate came under the rule of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb after a year-long siege of the Golconda fort.[31]
During the early seventeenth century a strong cotton-weaving industry existed in Telangana. Large quantities of cotton were produced for domestic and exports consumption. High quality plain and patterned cloth made of muslin and calico was produced.[32]
In 1712, Qamar-ud-din Khan was appointed by emperor Farrukhsiyar as the viceroy of Deccan with the title Nizam-ul-Mulk (meaning "Administrator of the Realm"). He was later recalled to Delhi, with Mubariz Khan appointed as the viceroy. In 1724, Qamar-ud-din Khan defeated Mubariz Khan to reclaim the Deccan suba, establishing it as an autonomous province of the Mughal empire. He took the name Asif Jah, starting what came to be known as the Asaf Jahi dynasty.[28] He named the area Hyderabad Deccan. Subsequent rulers retained the title Nizam ul-Mulk and were called Asif Jahi Nizams or nizams of Hyderabad. Hyderabad Nizams remained the tributary of marathas after suffering series of defeats paying annual chauth in return for retaining their domain. The Medak and Warangal divisions of Telangana were part of their realm.[33]
When Asif Jah I died in 1748, there was political unrest due to contention for the throne among his sons, who were aided by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces. In 1769, Hyderabad city became the formal capital of the Nizams. The Nizam Nasir-ud-dawlah, Asaf Jah IV signed the subsidiary alliance with the British in 1799 and lost its control over the state's defence and foreign affairs. Hyderabad State became a princely state among the presidencies and provinces of British India.[33]
In 1787, heavy flooding killed over 20,000 causing a plague which killed about 10,656,000 people in Telangana.[34]
Modern period
When India became independent from the British Empire in 1947, the Nizam of Hyderabad did not want to merge with the Indian Union and wanted to remain independent. The Government of India annexed Hyderabad State on 17 September 1948 after a military operation called Operation Polo.[28] It appointed a civil servant, M. K. Vellodi, as first chief minister of Hyderabad State on 26 January 1950.[35] He administered the state with the help of English-educated bureaucrats from the Madras and Bombay states, who were familiar with British systems of administration unlike the bureaucrats of Hyderabad State who used a completely different administrative system. The official language of the state was switched from Urdu to English.
In 1952, Dr. Burgula Ramakrishna Rao was elected chief minister of the Hyderabad State in its first democratic election. During this time, there were violent agitations by some Telanganites to send the Madras state bureaucrats back and implement a rule by the natives (mulkis) of Hyderabad (Syed Alam Sharjil) was elected chief minister of Hyderabad after (Dr. Burgula Ramakrishana Rao) for one year after he resigned from the post.[36]
The revolt began in the Nalgonda district against the feudal lords of Reddy and Velama castes. It quickly spread to the Warangal and Bidar districts. Peasant farmers and labourers revolted against the local feudal landlords (jagirdars and deshmukhs) and later against the Nizam Osman Ali Khan. The violent phase of the movement ended after the government of India's Operation Polo.[38] Starting in 1951, the CPI shifted to a more moderate strategy of seeking to bring communism to India within the framework of Indian democracy.[39]
In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was appointed to form states on a linguistic basis.[40] An agreement was reached between Telangana leaders and Andhra leaders on 20 February 1956 to merge Telangana and Andhra with promises to safeguard Telangana's interests.[41] After reorganisation in 1956, the region of Telangana was merged with Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh.
Following this Gentlemen's agreement, the central government established the unified state of Andhra Pradesh on 1 November 1956.[42][43][44] G.O 553 of 1959 from the united Andhra Pradesh state moved two revenue divisions of Bhadrachalam from East Godavari and Aswaraopeta from West Godavari to Khammam for administrative convenience.
There had been several movements to revoke the merger of Telangana and Andhra, major ones occurring in 1969, 1972, and 2009. The movement for a new state of Telangana gained momentum in the 21st century by an initiative of Kalvakuntla Chandrashekhar Rao from Bharat Rashtra Samithi later joined by the Telangana Political Joint Action Committee (TJAC), including political leadership representing the Telangana area.[45] On 9 December 2009 the government of India announced the process of formation of the Telangana state. Violent protests led by people in the Coastal Andhra and Rayalseema regions occurred immediately after the announcement, and the decision was put on hold on 23 December 2009.
The movement continued in Hyderabad and other districts of Telangana.[46] There were hundreds of claimed suicides,[47] strikes, protests and disturbances to public life demanding separate statehood.
On 30 July 2013, the Congress Working Committee unanimously passed a resolution to recommend the formation of a separate Telangana state. After various stages the bill was placed in the Parliament of India in February 2014.[48] In February 2014, Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 bill was passed by the Parliament of India for the formation of Telangana state, comprising ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh.[49] The bill received the assent of the president and was published in the Gazette on 1 March 2014.[50]
The state of Telangana was officially formed on 2 June 2014. Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao was elected as the first chief minister of Telangana, following elections in which the Bharat Rashtra Samithi party secured a majority.[51]Hyderabad would remain as the joint capital of both Telangana and Andhra Pradesh for a period. Within the decade, Hyderabad would become the capital of the state of Telangana, and a new capital was selected for Andhra Pradesh.[52] Andhra Pradesh picked Amaravati as its capital and relocated its secretariat in 2016 and its legislature in 2017.[53][54]
Telangana is situated on the Deccan Plateau, in the central stretch of the eastern seaboard of the Indian Peninsula. It covers 112,077 square kilometres (43,273 sq mi).[2] The region is drained by two major rivers, with about 79% of the Godavari River catchment area and about 69% of the Krishna River catchment area, but most of the land is arid.[2] Telangana is also drained by several minor rivers such as the Bhima, the Maner, the Manjira, the Musi, and the Tungabhadra.
The annual rainfall is between 900 and 1500mm in northern Telangana and 700 to 900mm in southern Telangana, from the southwest monsoons. Telangana contains various soil types, some of which are red sandy loams (Chalaka), Red loamy sands (Dubba), lateritic soils, salt-affected soils, alluvial soils, shallow to medium black soils and very deep black cotton soils. These soil types allow the planting of a variety of fruits and vegetable crops such as mangoes, oranges, coconut, sugarcane, paddy, banana and flower crops.[55][56][57]
Climate
Telangana is a semi-arid area and has a predominantly hot and dry climate. Summers start in March, and peak in mid-April with average high temperatures in the 37–38 °C (99–100 °F) range. The monsoon arrives in June and lasts until Late-September with about 755 mm (29.7 inches) of precipitation. A dry, mild winter starts in late November and lasts until early February with little humidity and average temperatures[58] in the 22–23 °C (72–73 °F) range.
Sacred groves are small areas of forest preserved by local people. Sacred groves provide sanctuary to the local flora and fauna. Some are included within other protected areas, like Kadalivanam in Nagarjunsagar–Srisailam Tiger Reserve, but most stand alone. There are 65 sacred groves in Telangana—two in Adilabad district, thirteen in Hyderabad district, four in Karimnagar district, four in Khammam district, nine in Mahbubnagar district, four in Medak district, nine in Nalgonda district, ten in Ranga Reddy district, and three in Warangal district.[60]
Telugu, one of the classical languages of India, is the official language of Telangana and Urdu is the second official language of the state.[62] About 75% of the population of Telangana speak Telugu and 12% speak Urdu.[63][64] Before 1948, Urdu was the official language of Hyderabad State, and due to a lack of Telugu-language educational institutions, Urdu was the language of the educated elite of Telangana.[65] After 1948, once Hyderabad State joined the new Republic of India, Telugu became the language of government, and as Telugu was introduced as the medium of instruction in schools and colleges, the use of Urdu among non-Hyderabadi Muslims decreased.[66] Both Telugu and Urdu are used in services across the state, such as the Telangana Legislature website, with Telugu and Urdu versions of the website available,[67] as well as the Hyderabad metro, wherein both languages are used on station names and signs along with English and Hindi.[68] The Urdu spoken in Telangana is called Hyderabadi Urdu, which in itself is a dialect of the larger Dakhini Urdu dialects of South India. Although the language is spoken by most Hyderabadi Muslims, the language in a literary context has long been lost, and standard Urdu is used.[69] Hindi is spoken mainly in Hyderabad, as well as some other urban areas like Warangal. Lambadi, a language related to Rajasthani dialects, is used across the state. Marathi is predominant in regions bordering Maharashtra, especially in the old Adilabad district, while Kannada is spoken by significant minorities along some parts of the Karnataka border. The old Adilabad district has a large number of speakers of tribal languages such as Gondi and Kolami, while Koya is a language spoken by significant numbers in Bhadradi Kothagudem district and along the Chhattisgarh border.[70]
According to the 2011 census, Telangana's literacy rate is 66.46%. Male literacy and female literacy are 74.95% and 57.92%, respectively.[2]Hyderabad district has the highest literacy rate with 80.96% and Mahabubnagar district has the lowest with 56.06%.[72]
In a 2019 report, the Key Indicators of Household Social Consumption on Education in India, by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Telangana has a literacy rate of 72.8% which is the fourth lowest among large states. It also has the second lowest literacy rate among rural women at 53.7%. 37.1% of the population aged 3–35 years received free education at pre-primary and higher levels in Telangana.[11]
Telangana at the time of formation on 2 June 2014.
The state is divided into 33 districts. The latest two new districts, Mulugu and Narayanpet, were formed on 17 February 2019.[73] The districts are divided into 70 revenue divisions which are further divided into 584 mandals.[74][75] There are a total of 10,909 revenue villages and 12,769 gram panchayats in the state.[76]
Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor. The governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly.
The legislature, the Telangana Legislative Assembly and the Telangana Legislative Council, consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, that are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the speaker or the deputy speaker in the speaker's absence. The Assembly is bicameral with 119 Members of the Legislative Assembly and 40 Member of the Legislative Council. Terms of office run for five years unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. The Legislative Council is a permanent body with one-third of members retiring every two years.
Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The state contributes seats to Lok Sabha.
Coal Handling Ropeway near Manuguru, Bhadradri Kothagudem district.
The economy of Telangana is mainly driven by agriculture. Two important rivers of
India, the Godavari and Krishna, flow through the state,
providing irrigation. Farmers in Telangana mainly depend on rain-fed water sources for irrigation. Rice is the major food crop. Other important crops are cotton, sugar cane, mango, and tobacco. Recently, crops used for vegetable oil production such as sunflower and peanuts have gained favour. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, the world's highest masonry dam.[77][78]
The state has also started to focus on the fields of information technology and biotechnology. Telangana is one of top IT-exporting states of India. There are 68 Special Economic Zones in the state.[79]
Rice is the major food crop and staple food of the state. Other important crops are maize, tobacco, mango, cotton and sugar cane.[81] Agriculture has been the chief source of income for the state's economy. The Godavari and Krishna rivers flow through the state, providing irrigation. Apart from major rivers, there are small rivers like Tunga Bhadra, Bima, Dindi, Kinnerasani, Manjeera, Manair, Penganga, Pranahitha, peddavagu and Taliperu. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, the world's highest masonry dam.[82]
Mangoes and grapes: Hyderabad, Rangareddy, Medak, Mahabubnagar
In 2019, environmental anthropologist Andrew Flachs raised concerns regarding the financial and social pressures experienced by small cotton farmers in Telangana after conducting ethnographic research in the area. The GM (genetically modified) seeds he focused on were introduced to combat pests and low yields. Within 10 years, GM cottonseeds, which are solely bred by private breeders, were able to capture more than 90% of the Indian market, which was formerly a public market. The privatisation of seed brands in formerly public markets has been accompanied by pesticides, fertilisers, consultations, and herbicides which are needed to manage the new monocultures. He found that this introduction, however, negatively impacted farmers’ ecological knowledge about seed choices and cotton-plant management.[84]
Flachs surveyed farming households about their experiences with GM hybrid cottonseeds from 2012 to 2016. His research initially focused on the agricultural decision-making process among Telangana cotton farmers in the wake of genetically modified seed market expansion, then later on the concept of manci digubadi as a script. Manci digubadi means “good yields,” with a more extended phrasing being “manci digubadi annakunthunnanu,” which translates to “I’m hoping for good yields.” The concept of manci digubadi, as described by Flachs, posits that seed choice should be made based on whether or not it has “good yields,” which is dependent solely on what the individual believes is “good.” Flachs further argues that this script is used in the absence of reliable experiential knowledge in the face of agricultural development and GMOs. This is because, in the pursuit of a good yield, cotton farmers learn little about the seeds they use before they switch to the next promising new brands, some of which have been smuggled in or bought on the black market. Marketing, the constant influx of new options, and the fear of missing out on popular seeds also contribute to the high turnover. This high turnover and the resulting lack of experiential knowledge have resulted in cotton farmers unwittingly planting the same type of seed multiple times because they are under different brand names. In contrast to this, farmers adopt and abandon seeds from public-sector-bred crops like rice and heirloom vegetables more slowly so they can rely more on experiential knowledge to make decisions.[84]
Telangana cotton farmers are at risk for debt and suicide caused by agricultural pressures such as unreliable credit, pest problems, and agricultural management uncertainty. Flachs argues that seed choices and the rationalisation behind the choice are central to the agricultural political economy, as seed choice is “the first decision that cotton farmers make and one that they cannot take back.”[84] Flachs argues that cotton seed choices are driven less by economic rationalism and more by an aspiration to overcome generational poverty and historical marginalisation.[84] Flachs found evidence in his work suggesting that many farmers' seed choices are influenced by the choices of their neighbours or more wealthy landowners. As an example of manci digubadi being used in place of experiential knowledge, Flachs gives the story of a farmer who had planted the Mahyco company’s Neeraja cottonseed for nine years abandoned that seed in favour of Kaveri’s Jaadoo seed after hearing reports that the Jaadoo seeds had done well in a neighbouring village. Farmers also seek advice from non-household experts such as pesticide shop managers and university extension agents. There is no objective cost-benefit analysis because the costs and benefits are ambiguous due to things variations of factors like weather and pests and farmers having no reliable measure for what constitutes a good yield for cotton.[84]
The HITEC City is a major IT hub of HyderabadJP Morgan Chase & Co. Tower Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Several major manufacturing and services industries are in operation mainly around Hyderabad. Automobiles and auto components, spices, mines and minerals, textiles and apparels, pharmaceutical, horticulture, and poultry farming are the main industries in Telangana.[85]
In terms of services, Hyderabad is nicknamed "Cyberabad" due to the location of major software industries in the city.[86][87] Prior to secession, it contributed 10% to India's and 98% to Andhra Pradesh's exports in the IT and ITES sectors in 2013[88] With Hyderabad in the front line of Telangana's goal to promote information technology in India, the city boasts the HITEC City as its premier hub. IT companies/hubs have also been set up in Warangal,[89]Karimnagar, and Khammam.[90]
The state government is in the process of developing industrial parks at different places, for specific groups of industries. The existing parks are Software Park at Hyderabad, HITEC City for software units, Apparel Park at Gundlapochampalli, Export Promotion Park at Pashamylaram, Biotechnology park at Turkapally.[citation needed]
Hyderabad is also a major site for healthcare-related industries including hospitals and pharmaceutical organisations such as Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences, Yashoda Hospitals, LV Prasad Eye Care, Akruti Institute of cosmetic and plastic surgery, Fever Hospital, Durgabai Deshmukh, Continental Hospitals and Apollo Hospitals. Many pharmaceutical and pharmaceutical-related companies like Dr. Reddy's Laboratories, Shantha Biotechnics and Aragen (Formerly GVK BIO) are based out of Hyderabad.
In addition, Hyderabad-based healthcare non-profits include the Indian Heart Association, a cardiovascular disease NGO.[91]
AI-Based Pharma Healthcare IT Hub: At the 73rd Indian Pharmaceutical Congress, D. Sridhar Babu, Minister for IT along with Deputy Chief Minister, Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka and Pulsus Group CEO Gedela Srinubabu, announced the creation of an AI-based pharma healthcare IT hub. This initiative aims to develop AI-based skills and generate 10,000 direct jobs and 40,000 indirect jobs in Telangana.[92][93]
Telangana Tourism Development Corporation (TGTDC) is a state government agency which promotes tourism in Telangana.[94] Telangana has a variety of tourist attractions including historical places, monuments, forts, waterfalls, forests and temples.
The history of railways in this region dates back to the time of Nizam of Hyderabad in 1874. The Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway, which had its beginnings in a line built privately by the HEH the Nizam. Much to the dismay of the British authorities, The Nizam bore all the expenses for the construction of the line.[102]
It operates under the auspices of the South Central Railway founded in 1966. The landmark building Rail Nilayam in Secunderabad is the Zonal Headquarters office of South Central Railway. Secunderabad and Hyderabad are the main divisions of the South Central Railway that fall in the state.[103]
Warangal has a domestic airport in Mamunooru which was established in the year 1930 during the Nizam period. All the exports and imports of Azam Jahi Mills, Warangal were done through the Warangal Airport.[citation needed]
The state has a rich tradition in classical music, painting and folk arts such as Burra Katha, shadow puppet show, and Perini Shivatandavam,Gusadi Dance, Kolatam and Bathukamma.
Telugu cinema, also known by its sobriquet as Tollywood, is a part of Indian cinema producing films in the Telugu language, and is centred in the Hyderabad, Telangana neighbourhood of Film Nagar.[110] In the early 1990s, the Telugu film industry had largely shifted from Chennai to Hyderabad. The Telugu film industry is the second-largest film industry in India next to Bollywood.[111] In the years 2005, 2006 and 2008 the Telugu film industry produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood.[112][113] The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world.[114]
Telangana cuisine is a unique and delicious cuisine that is influenced by the region's rich history of deccan and Telugu culture.[115] The cuisine is known for its use of spices,[116] millets,[117] and rotis. Telangana cuisine also features a variety of other dishes, including biryani, haleem, and kebabs.[118]
Telangana has multiple institutes of higher education universities along with numerous primary and secondary schools. The Department of Higher Education deals with matters relating to education at various levels in the state of Telangana.
According to a 2019 report, the state has a literacy rate of 72.8%, which is one of the lowest in India.[11] Schools in Telangana are run by the state government or private organisations, which include religious institutions. Some specialised schools such as the Kendriya Vidyalayas and Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas are run by agencies of the central government.[123] As of 2017[update], there are 41,337 schools in the state, with about 70% of them being government schools.[124]
^ ab"Sub-national HDI – Area Database". Global Data Lab. Institute for Management Research, Radboud University. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
^"Notification"(PDF). The Gazette of India. Government of India. 4 March 2014. Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
^The Rough Guide to India. Penguin. 2011. Rise of the south section.
^Hyderabad, 400 Glorious Years. p. 116. While the floods drowned 20000 people in hours, plague killed another 10,656,000 of the total population of the State.
^Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment. Island Press; Washington, DC. pp. 324–326
^Kailash C. Malhotra; Yogesh Gokhale; Sudipto Chatterjee; Sanjeev Srivastava (2001). "Cultural and Ecological Dimensions of Sacred Groves in India"(PDF). Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, and Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Manav Sangrahalaya, Bhopal. Archived from the original(PDF) on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 20 July 2014.
^"C-16 Population By Mother Tongue". Census of India 2011. Office of the Registrar General. Archived from the original on 10 April 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2021. (Excludes mandals transferred to Andhra Pradesh, but includes census towns not transferred with mandals - Bhadrachalam and Sarapaka). It was assumed area of Burgampahad mandal transferred to Andhra Pradesh had same proportion of languages as rural areas of the mandal as a whole.
^ abcdeFlachs, A., 2019. Planting and performing: Anxiety, aspiration, and "scripts" in Telangana cotton farming. American Anthropologist, 121(1), pp.48-61.
^Chand, Swati Bharadwaj (13 October 2011). "An Amazon shot for city". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 26 February 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
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