"British Muslim" redirects here. For the satellite television channel, see British Muslim TV. For the list of notable British Muslims, see List of British Muslims.
Islam is the second-largest religion in the United Kingdom, with results from the 2021 Census recording just under four million Muslims, or 6.0% of the total population in the United Kingdom.[7][8]London has the largest population and greatest proportion (15%) of Muslims in the country.[9][10][11] The vast majority of British Muslims in the United Kingdom adhere to Sunni Islam,[12] while smaller numbers are associated with Shia Islam.
During the Middle Ages, there was some general cultural exchange between Christendom and the Islamic world.[13] Nonetheless, there were no Muslims in the British Isles; however, a few Crusaders did convert in the East, such as Robert of St. Albans. During the Elizabethan age, contacts became more explicit as the Tudors made alliances against Catholic Habsburg Spain, including with the Ottoman Empire. As the British Empire grew, particularly in India, Britain came to rule territories with many Muslim inhabitants; some of these, known as the lascars, are known to have settled in Britain from the mid-18th century onwards. In the 19th century, Victorian Orientalism spurred an interest in Islam and some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam. Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, and a convert to Islam, provided the first complete English-language translation of the Qur'an by a British Muslim in 1930. Under the British Indian Army, a significant number of Muslims fought for the United Kingdom during the First and the Second World Wars (a number of whom were awarded the Victoria Cross, Britain's highest honour). In the decades following the latter conflict and the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims (from what is today Bangladesh, India and Pakistan) settled in Britain itself.
To this day, South Asians constitute the majority of Muslims in Britain in terms of ethnicity,[14][15] although there are significant Turkish, Arab and Somali communities, as well as up to 100,000 British converts of multiple ethnic backgrounds.[16] Islam is the second largest religion in the United Kingdom and its adherents have the lowest average age out of all the major religious groups.[17] Between 2001 and 2009, the Muslim population increased almost 10 times faster than the non-Muslim population.[18]
A mancus/gold dinar of king Offa, copied from the dinars of the Abbasid Caliphate (774); it includes the Arabic text "Muhammad is the Apostle of Allah", a line from the Shahada.
The earliest evidence of Islamic influence in England dates to the 8th century, when Offa, the Anglo-Saxon king of Mercia, minted a coin with an Arabic inscription, largely a copy of coins issued by a contemporary Abbasid ruler, CaliphAl-Mansur.[19] In the 16th century, Muslims from North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia were present in London, working in a range of roles, from diplomats and translators to merchants and musicians.[20]
In South Asia, specifically, the British ruled over one of the largest Muslim populations in the world.[citation needed] Upon coming into contact with such a population, the British authorities forged a uniquely Muslim identity for the local believers. This was, in part, due to the way British historians periodised South Asian history into an "ancient" Hindu one and a "medieval" Muslim one. Under the system, the colonial period was classified as "modern".[30] Debate rages on concerning the utility and legitimacy of these labels themselves. Problems with these labels range from the connotations coupled with the word 'medieval' to the implications related to labelling the colonial era as "modern". The term medieval itself is quite controversial. Historians writing in journals relating to the time period have asked whether the term is a "tyrannous construct" or an "alien conceptual hegemony".[30] This is because the label was originally developed during the study of European history to mark the period in between the fall of the Roman Empire and the fall of Constantinople.[citation needed]
Such classifications done by British historians throughout their long period of rule paved the way for a more cohesive Muslim identity. In the eighteenth century, this seemed unlikely. Muslims who hailed from Afghan, Turk, Persian, or Arab roots did not find their Muslim identities especially salient. Mughal courts divided not into Hindu or Muslim factions but Persian and Turkish ones. Converts to the religion outside of courtly life, the majority of the Muslim population in the Subcontinent, too were more focused on their regional and lingual cultural identities-whether that be Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, or Gujarati.[31]
The first group of Muslims to come to Great Britain in significant numbers, in the 18th century, were lascars (sailors) recruited from the Indian subcontinent, largely from the Bengal region, to work for the East India Company on British ships, some of whom settled down and took local wives.[32] Due to the majority being lascars, the earliest Muslim communities were found in port towns. Naval cooks also came, many of them from the Sylhet district of British Bengal (now in Bangladesh). One of the most famous early Asian immigrants to England was the Bengali Muslim entrepreneur Sake Dean Mahomet, a captain of the East India Company who in 1810 founded London's first Indian restaurant, the Hindoostanee Coffee House.[33]
Between 1803 and 1813, there were more than 10,000 lascars from the Indian subcontinent visiting British port cities and towns.[34] By 1842, 3,000 lascars visited the UK annually, and by 1855, 12,000 lascars were arriving annually in British ports. In 1873, 3,271 lascars arrived in Britain.[35] Throughout the early 19th century lascars visited Britain at a rate of 1,000 every year,[34] which increased to a rate of 10,000 to 12,000 every year throughout the late 19th century.[36][37] A prominent English convert of the 19th century was Henry Stanley, 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley, who became a Muslim in 1862. Although not a convert himself, the Victorian Age adventurer, Sir Richard Francis Burton visited Mecca in disguise, documented in The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night. At the beginning of World War I, there were 51,616 South Asian lascars working on British ships, the majority of whom were of Bengali descent.[38] In 1932, the Indian National Congress survey of 'all Indians outside India' (which included modern Pakistani and Bangladeshi territories) estimated that there were 7,128 Indians living in the United Kingdom.
By 1911, the British Empire had a Muslim population of 94 million, larger than the empire's 58 million Christian population.[27] By the 1920s, the British Empire included roughly half of the world's Muslim population.[26] More than 400,000 Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army fought for Britain during World War I, where 62,060 were killed in action.[39] Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army later fought for Britain against the Nazis in World War II,[40] where Muslim soldiers accounted for up to 40%[41] of the 2.5 million troops serving the British Indian Army.[42]David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister from 1916 to 1922, stated: "we are the greatest Mahomedan power in the world and one-fourth of the population of the British Empire is Mahomedan. There have been no more loyal adherents to the throne and no more effective and loyal supporters of the Empire in its hour of trial." This statement was later reiterated by Gandhi in 1920.[25]Winston Churchill also stated in 1942: "We must not on any account break with the Moslems, who represent a hundred million people, and the main army elements on which we must rely for the immediate fighting."[41]
Marmaduke Pickthall authored an English language translation of the Qur'an in 1930.
Large-scale immigration of Muslims to Britain began after World War II, as a result of the destruction and labour shortages caused by the war.[47][48] Muslim migrants from former British colonies, predominantly India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh,[47] were recruited in large numbers by government and businesses to rebuild the country.[49] Large numbers of doctors recruited from India and Pakistan, encouraged by health minister Enoch Powell in the early 1960s, also played a key role in the establishment of the National Health Service (NHS).[50]
The majority of mosques founded after World War II in Britain are reflective of the major strands of Sunni Islam predominating in the Indian subcontinent; namely Deobandi and Barelvi (the latter of which is more Sufi-orientated). There are also a smaller number of Salafi-oriented mosques, inspired by Abul A'la Maududi and Jamaat-e-Islami, are representative of the Arab mainstream or are associated with the UK Turkish Islamic Trust. In addition to this there are Twelver Shīʿa Mosques. The Murabitun World Movement founded by Abdalqadir as-Sufi (born Ian Dallas) in 1968 is a branch of the Sufi Darqawi-Shadhili-Qadiritariqa which was run out of Achnagairn in the Scottish Highlands.
Recently, several wars in the Balkans, Middle East and North Africa have led to many Muslims migrating to the United Kingdom. In 1992, with the outbreak of the Bosnian War, a large number of Bosniaks who fled the ethnic cleansing and genocide ended up settling in Britain. Their numbers currently exist at between 10,000 and 15,000 including their descendants.[54] Just over three years later, an insurgency in Kosovo beginning in 1995, eventually evolving into the Kosovo War in 1998, would see 29,000 Kosovo Albanians flee their homes and settle in Britain. It is commonly believed that many Albanians from Albania moved to the United Kingdom at this time, posing as refugees from Kosovo, in search of a better life in the UK.[55]
A mere decade later, the Arab Spring (and later Arab Winter) brought a wave of Muslim refugees fleeing civil war in Syria, war in Iraq, two wars in Libya, war in Yemen and countless other insurgencies by political groups and other terrorist organisations which exerted control over vast swathes of territory in the Middle East.[56] Britain took on 20,000 refugees from Syria[57] and 11,647 from Iraq.[58]
The growing number of Muslims resulted in the establishment of more than 1,500 mosques by 2007.[59]
Muslim population pyramid in 2021 in England and WalesEthnic composition of British Muslims, 2021 census[77]
Year of arrival (2021 census, England and Wales)[78]
Born in the UK (51.0%)
Before 1971 (2.2%)
1971 to 1980 (3.2%)
1981 to 1990 (4.0%)
1991 to 2000 (7.4%)
2001 to 2010 (13.3%)
2011 to 2021 (18.9%)
According to the 2021 United Kingdom census, Muslims in England and Wales numbered 3,868,133, or 6.5% of the population.[79] Northern Ireland recorded a population of 10,870, or 0.6% of the population, with the highest number of Muslims recorded in Belfast at 5,487, or 1.59% of the population.[80] The equivalent census was conducted a year later in Scotland and recorded a population of 119,872, or 2.2% of the population. In Scotland, Glasgow recorded the highest number of Muslims at 48,766, or 7.86% of the population.[81] The top 25 local authorities in the United Kingdom with the highest percentage of Muslims in 2021 were:[82][83]
In the 2021 census for England and Wales, the main places of birth were the United Kingdom at 1,974,479 people (51.0% of the total Muslim population), South Asia at 993,415 (25.7%), Africa at 366,133 (9.5%), other parts of Europe at 262,685 (6.8%) and the Middle East at 231,261 (6.0%). Among individual countries outside of the UK, the countries of Pakistan; Bangladesh; Somalia; India; Iraq; Turkey; Afghanistan; Iran; Syria; and Italy made up the top ten most common countries of birth for Muslims residing in England and Wales.[84] 59.7% of Muslims identified as either Pakistani/Bangladeshi/Indian, 6.2% were of other Asian heritage, 10.8% identified as Black, 7.2% identified as Arab, 5.9% were White, 3.7% were of Mixed heritage, and the remaining 6.6% identified with other ethnic groups.[77]
The Muslim population of England and Wales has grown consistently since World War II. Sophie Gilliat-Ray attributes the recent growth to "recent immigration, the higher than average birth rate, some conversion to Islam".[85] In 2017, Pew Research Center projected the population of Muslims in the United Kingdom to grow to 6.56 million (12.7% of the population) by 2050 under a zero migration scenario, or to 13.48 million (17.2%) under a high migration scenario.[86]
Several large cities have one area that is a majority Muslim even if the rest of the city has a fairly small Muslim population. In addition, it is possible to find small areas that are almost entirely Muslim: for example, Savile Town in Dewsbury.[87]
Initial limited mosque availability meant that prayers were conducted in small rooms of council flats until the 1980s when more and larger facilities became available. Some synagogues and community buildings were turned into mosques and existing mosques began to expand their buildings. This process has continued down to the present day with the East London Mosque recently expanding into a large former car park where the London Muslim Centre is now used for prayers, recreational facilities and housing.[88][89] Most people regard themselves as part of the ummah, and their identity is based on their religion rather than their ethnic group.[90]
Islam is the third-largest religious group of British Indian people, after Hinduism and Sikhism.[91] 8% of UK Muslims are of Indian descent,[citation needed] principally those whose origins are in Gujarat, West Bengal, Telangana and Kerala. Gujarati Muslims from the Surat and Bharuch districts started to arrive from the 1940s when India was under British colonial rule, settling in the towns of Dewsbury and Batley in Yorkshire and in parts of Lancashire.
The single largest group of Muslims in the United Kingdom are of Pakistani descent. Pakistanis were one of the first South Asian Muslim communities to permanently settle in the United Kingdom, arriving in England first in the late 1940s. Immigration from Mirpur in Pakistan grew from the late 1950s, accompanied by immigration from other parts of Pakistan especially from Punjab, particularly from the surrounding Punjab villages of Faisalabad, Sahiwal, Sialkot, Jhelum, Gujar Khan and Gujarat, in addition to from the north-west Punjab including the chhachhiPathans and Pashtuns from Attock District, and some from villages of Ghazi, Nowshera and Peshawar. There is also a fairly large Punjabi community from East Africa found in London. People of Pakistani extraction are particularly notable in West Midlands, West Yorkshire, London, Lancashire/Greater Manchester and several industrial towns such as Luton, Slough and High Wycombe in the Home Counties. There are smaller numbers of Sindhis in Greater London. Pakistanis were traditionally working class but are slowly progressing into a Metropolitan middle class.
Chain migration played a significant role, as many of the early migrants helped bring their family members to the UK. Today, the British Mirpuri diaspora is one of the largest Kashmiri communities outside of South Asia, with strong ties to cities like Bradford, Birmingham, and Manchester. [92]
The East London Mosque was one of the first in Britain to be allowed to use loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan.[93]
People of Bangladeshi descent are the second largest Muslim community (after Pakistanis), 15% of Muslims in England and Wales are of Bangladeshi descent, one of the ethnic groups in the UK with the largest proportion of people following a single religion, being 92% Muslim.[94] The majority of these Muslims come from the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh. Many mosques opened by the British Bangladeshi community are often named after Shah Jalal and other Sufi saints who took part in the Islamic conquest of Sylhet in 1303. British Bangladeshi Muslims are mainly concentrated in London (Tower Hamlets and Newham), Luton, Birmingham and Oldham. The Bangladeshi Muslim community in London forms 24% of the Muslim population, larger than any other ethnic group.[95] Other smaller Bangladeshi Muslim communities are present in Newcastle upon Tyne, Bradford, Manchester, Sunderland, Portsmouth, and Rochdale.
There are groups which are active throughout Bangladeshi communities such as The Young Muslim Organisation. It is connected to the Islamic Forum Europe, associated with the East London Mosque and the London Muslim Centre – all of which have connections with the Bangladeshi political party, the Jamaat-e-Islami.[citation needed] Other large groups include another Sunni movement, the Fultoli (founded in Sylhet),[96] and the Tablighi Jamaat – which is a missionary and revival movement,[97] and avoids political attention. The Hizb ut-Tahrir calls for the Khilafah (caliphate) and influences by publishing annual magazines, and lectures through mainly political concepts,[98] and the other which is a movement within Sunni Islam is the Salafi – who view the teachings of the first generations after Muhammed as the correct teachings,[99] and appeals to younger Muslims as a way to differentiate themselves towards their elders.[88][100] All these groups work to stimulate Islamic identity among local Bengalis or Muslims and particularly focus on the younger members of the communities.[89][101][102] The British Bangladeshi community has held a strong point in Islam, often opening large mosques such as East London Mosque and Brick Lane Masjid, as well as opening madrassas and Islamic TV channels.
People of Arab origin in Britain are the descendants of Arab immigrants to Britain from a variety of Arab states or entities, including Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt and the Palestinian Authority. Most British Arabs are Sunni Muslim, although some – such as those of Iraqi and Lebanese origin – are Shi'ite. The main Arab Muslim communities in the UK live in the Greater London area, with smaller numbers living in Manchester, Liverpool, and Birmingham. There are also sizable and very long-established communities of Muslim Yemenis in the United Kingdom in among other places Cardiff and the South Shields area near Newcastle.
The 2001 UK Census recorded 32,236 Iraqi-born residents,[106] and the Office for National Statistics estimates that, as of 2009, this figure had risen to around 65,000.[107] According to estimates by the Iraqi embassy, the Iraqi population in the UK is around 350,000–450,000.[108]
Turks in the United Kingdom represent a unique community in the country because they have emigrated not only from the Republic of Turkey but also from other former Ottoman regions; in fact, the majority of British Turks are Turkish Cypriots who migrated from the island of Cyprus from the British colonial period onwards. The second largest Turkish community descend from Turkey. There has also been ethnic Turkish migration waves from Arabic-speaking countries (such as Iraq[109] and Syria) as well as the Balkans (including Bulgaria,[110]Greece,[111] and Romania).[110] A report published by the Home Affairs Committee in 2011 claimed that there was 500,000 British Turks,[110] made up of approximately 150,000 Turkish nationals, 300,000 Turkish Cypriots, and the remainder from other countries.[112] As of 2013[update], there was a growing number of ethnic Turks from the modern diaspora in Western Europe; for example, Turks with German and Dutch citizenship (i.e. Turkish Germans and Turkish Dutch) had also immigrated to Britain in accordance with the freedom of movement under EU law.[113]
Turkish Cypriots first began to migrate to the United Kingdom in 1917.[114] At the time, the British Empire had already annexed Cyprus and the residents of Cyprus became subjects of the Crown. Migration continued through the 1920s;[115] during the Second World War, the number of Turkish-run cafes increased from 20 in 1939 to 200 in 1945 – creating a demand for more Turkish Cypriot workers.[116] However, due to the Cyprus conflict, many Turkish Cypriots began to leave the island for political reasons in the 1950s,[117] with the numbers increasing significantly after the intercommunal violence of late 1963. With the subsequent division of the island in 1974 (followed by the declaration of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983) an economic embargo against the Turkish Cypriots by the Greek Cypriot controlled Republic of Cyprus, caused a further 130,000 Turkish Cypriots to leave the Island for the United Kingdom.[118][119]
Migrant workers from the Republic of Turkey began to arrive in large numbers in the 1970s, followed by their family members in the late 1970s and 1980s.[120] Many of these workers were recruited by Turkish Cypriots who had already established businesses such as restaurants.[121] These workers were required to renew their work permits every year until they became residents after living in the country for five years.[120] By the 1980s, intellectuals, including students, and highly educated professionals arrived in the country, most of which received support from the Turkish Cypriot community.[122] Mainland Turks settled in similar areas of London in which the Turkish Cypriots lived in; however, many have also moved to the outer districts, such as Essex.[120]
The Turkish community have established several mosques in the country. The first was Shacklewell Lane Mosque, established by the Turkish Cypriot community in 1977.[123] There are numerous other Turkish mosques in London, mainly in Hackney, including the Aziziye Mosque[124] and Suleymaniye Mosque.[125] Notable Turkish mosques outside London include Selimiye Mosque in Manchester, Hamidiye Mosque in Leicester, and Osmaniye Mosque in Stoke-on-Trent.[126]
Although data is short, findings indicate Maghrebis make up a substantial community in Europe and the United Kingdom. Britain has long ties with Maghrebis, through contact with the Maghrebis. Nevertheless, Britain has a far lower count of Maghrebis in comparison to France, the Netherlands and Spain, where the majority of Muslims are Maghrebi.[130]
Somali women at a Somali community gathering event in London
The United Kingdom, with 43,532 Somalia-born residents in 2001,[133] and an estimated 101,000 in 2008,[134] is home to the largest Somali community in Europe. A 2009 estimate by Somali community organisations puts the Somali population figure at 90,000 residents.[135] The first Somali immigrants were seamen and traders who arrived in small numbers in port cities in the late 19th century, although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals. Further more Somali European such as from Holland or Denmark have been emigrating in recent years.[135] Established Somali communities are found in Bristol, Cardiff, Liverpool and London, and newer ones have formed in Leicester, Manchester and Sheffield.[136][137][138][139]
White European
The history of native British Muslims has a long presence in the country. The earliest known Englishman to convert to Islam was John Nelson of the 16th century. Thomas Keith was a Scottish soldier who converted to Islam and became the governor of Medina.[140] The pirate Jack Ward, one of the inspirations for Captain Jack Sparrow, converted to Islam in the early 1600s. Another famous convert was the Victorian explorer Richard Francis Burton who successfully completed a Hajj to Mecca in 1853, although later in life he declared himself an atheist. Abdullah Quilliam was a 19th-century Englishman who converted to Islam and built what is argued to be the first mosque in the country in Liverpool. He was known locally for his work advocating trade unionism and divorce law reform and persuaded more people in Liverpool to convert but they faced abuse from the wider society.[141]
An August 2017 survey by the Bertelsmann Stiftung foundation found that among British Muslims, 75% were Sunni and 8% were Shia.[145]
A September 2017 survey by the Institute for Jewish Policy Research found that among British Muslims, 77% were Sunni, 5% were Shia, 1% were Ahmadiyya, and 4% were members of other denominations. 14% of British Muslims said they did not know or refused to answer the survey.[146]
The denominational or theme breakdown of mosques and prayer rooms in the UK in 2017 with a sum total of more than 5% were as follows: 41.2% Deobandi, 23.7% Barelvi, 9.4% Salafi, and 5.9% Shia (Twelver, Bohra, Ismaili). 7.4% were non-denominational prayer rooms.[147]
Among British Sunnis in 2017, 66.7% were just non-denominational Sunni, 5.9% were Barelvi, 5.0% were Salafis, 4.1% were Deobandi, and 18.3% adhered to another Sunni Islam denomination.[149]
The majority of British mosques are Sunni, including Deobandi, Barelvis and Salafi. In 2010 the affiliation of the mosques was: 44.6% Deobandi, 28.2% Barelvi and other Sufi, 5.8% Salafi, 2.8% Maudoodi-inspired; of the remainder many were part of other Sunni traditions or unaffiliated, while 4.2% were Shi'a (4%). The majority of mosque managers are of Pakistani and Bangladeshi origin, with many Gujarati, and fewer Arab, Turkish and Somali managed entities.[150]
Shia mosques are usually Twelvers but also cater for Zaydis and the 50,000-strong Ismaili community;[151] they usually include facilities for women. Various Shia mosques include the Husseini Islamic Centre in Stanmore, Harrow which acts as one of the main Shia Muslim mosques in Britain as well as Masjid-e-Ali in Luton, one of the largest Imam Bargah/community centres in the UK, and the Islamic Centre of England in Maida Vale, also a large multi-ethnic community centre. Others include Al Masjid ul Husseini in Northolt, Ealing, and Imam Khoei Islamic Centre in Queens Park, Brent. Across the country Manchester, Birmingham and London have the most Shia residents.
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community (AMC) established itself in the UK in 1912 and is thus the longest-standing Muslim community in the UK. The UK and worldwide headquarters of the AMC are currently situated on the grounds of 'The Blessed Mosque' (Masjid Mubarak), inaugurated on 17 May 2019 by Mirza Masroor Ahmad, the fifth caliph of the Ahmadiyya movement,[152] in Tilford, Surrey. The AMC also has the largest Muslim youth organisation, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Youth Association (Majlis Khuddamul Ahmadiyya) in the UK (membership of 7,500) and the largest Muslim women's organisation, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Women's Association (Lajna Ima'illah), in the UK (membership of 10,000).[153]
Sectarian relations
There has also been discrimination by orthodox Sunni Muslims against Ahmadi Muslims. In 2014, on the 125 anniversary of the establishment of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, the Community published an advertisement in the Luton on Sunday. Following a written complaint from Dr Fiaz Hussain, co-ordinator of the Preservation of Finality of Prophethood Forum (PFPF), stating that the Ahmadiyya community should not be called "Muslim" because it rejected some of the basic principles of Islam,[154] the paper received a delegation of 'Community Leaders' and shortly afterwards printed an apology disassociating itself from the Ahmadiyya advertisement.[155]Tell MAMA responded by identifying attempts to intimidate or discriminate against Ahmadiyya Muslims "as anti-Muslim in nature".[156]
Society
Economics
Muslims in the UK are vastly overrepresented in high-level occupations in the health sector, as shown in the figures below.
In a 2010 aggregate study published by the Government Equalities Office, Muslims in the United Kingdom had the lowest median hourly salary and held the least wealth amongst religious groups. They also held the lowest employment rates amongst religious groups, at 24% for Muslim women and 47% for Muslim men. The study noted that Muslim women who worked earned more than Muslim men and that Muslim men were more likely to be in self employment compared to the general population of men. Muslim men also had the smallest proportion with degrees, at 18%. More than two-fifths of Muslim men and women have no qualification beyond level 1 (equivalent to grades D-G at GCSE).[169] According to analysis based on the 2011 census, Muslims in the United Kingdom faced poor standards of housing and were more vulnerable to long-term illness.[170]
According to a 2013 assessment from the Muslim Council of Britain, it was estimated that there were more than 10,000 Muslim millionaires and 13,400 Muslim-owned businesses in London, creating more than 70,000 jobs and representing just over 33 per cent of Small to Medium Enterprises in London.[171]
Amongst the economically active population in England and Wales, 19.8% of the Muslim population were in full-time employment compared to 34.9% of the overall population.[172] Data from the ONS for England and Wales in 2020 indicated that across religious groups, Muslims continue to hold the lowest earnings, lowest rates of employment, highest rates of economic inactivity, least likely to work in high-skilled occupations, least likely to hold managerial positions, and most likely to report holding no qualifications. However, there had been progress in these metrics.[173] The 2021 United Kingdom census for England and Wales found that the Muslim population had consistently lower rates of employment across every age group compared to the general population. Between the ages of 25–54, the employment rate for Muslims was typically 60% compared to around 80% across the whole population. Overall, 48.6% of working aged British Muslims were in employment, with the employment rate of Muslim women improving to 37%. Muslim women were 3.5 times more likely to report economic inactivity due to looking after family or home compared to the general population of women.[174]
The 2021 census for England and Wales recorded 41.5% of Muslims either owning their home with a mortgage (26.3%) or outright (15.2%). 31.3% rent privately or live rent free and the remaining 27.2% live in social housing. Across religious groups, Muslims were the most likely to live in social housing (compared to 17.1% of the wider population) and held the lowest rates of home ownership (compared to 62.8% of the wider population).[175]
Education
Around 32.3% of Muslims in the UK held degree-level qualifications, according to the 2021 UK Census. This is higher than White British (31%) and Christians (31.6%).[176] In contrast, a higher proportion of Muslims in the UK held no qualifications (25%), in comparison with White British (18.3%) and Christians (20.8%).
In 2006, it was found that approximately 53% of British Muslim youth chose to attend university.[177] This was higher than the figure for Christians (45%) and the non-religious (32%) but lower than for Hindus (77%) and Sikhs (63%).[177]
There are around 184 Muslim faith schools in the UK, 28 of them being state-funded.[178] In 2008, 86.5% of pupils attending Muslim schools achieved five GCSEs, compared to a figure of 72.8% of Roman Catholic schools and 64.5% of secular schools.[179]
In 2019, four Islamic schools were in the top ten ranking for secondary schools in England, including Tauheedul Islam Girls High School in first place.[180]
The majority of British Muslims vote for the Labour Party,[187] however there are some high-profile Conservative Muslims, including former Minister for Faith and Communities and former Co-chairman and the Conservative PartySayeeda Warsi,[188] described by The Guardian as a 'rising star' in the Tory party.[189] Warsi, who was the first Muslim to serve in a British cabinet, was appointed by David Cameron in 2010 as a minister without portfolio. She was made a senior minister of state in 2012. In August 2014 she resigned over the government's approach to the 2014 Israel-Gaza conflict.[190]
Muslim political parties in Britain have included the People's Justice Party (UK), a Pakistani and Kashmiri party that won city council seats in Manchester in the 2000s,[191] and the unsuccessful Islamic Party of Britain, an Islamist party in Bradford in the 1990s.[192] In 2023, the Electoral Commission rejected an application to set up a new political party named 'Party of Islam'.[193]
In the 2017 general election, 15 Muslim MPs (12 Labour and 3 Conservative) were elected, up from 13 Muslim MPs in 2015 general election.[194] In the 2019 general election, a record number of 19 Muslim MPs were elected (15 Labour and 4 Conservative).[195][196]
Survey data analysed by UK in a Changing Europe showed that Labour (72 per cent) led Conservatives (11 per cent) by 61 points amongst Muslim voters in 2019. Further analysis showed that many minorities were "necessity liberals" who voted for Labour not because they were social liberals, but because Labour represented a broader political package and distrusted the Conservatives on identity matters. British Pakistani and British Bangladeshi voters in particular, by a margin of 20–30 points, believed that LGBT rights had gone too far.[197]
At the 2024 general election, 24 Muslim MPs were elected including a record four independent pro-Palestinian MPs. All of the elected independent MPs were endorsed by The Muslim Vote, a pressure group set up in December 2023 in response to the Israel–Hamas war. Polling by Savanta found that 44 per cent of Muslim voters ranked the matter among their top five issues compared to 12 per cent of non-Muslims.[198]
Public demonstration in the United Kingdom for sharia, October 2009
Although sharia is not part of the British legal system, several British establishment figures have supported its use in areas of dispute resolution in Islamic communities. For example, in February 2008 Rowan Williams the Archbishop of Canterbury (the head of the Church of England) lectured at the Royal Courts of Justice on Islam and English law. In this lecture he spoke of the possibility of using sharia in some circumstances:
[...] it might be possible to think in terms of[...] a scheme in which individuals retain the liberty to choose the jurisdiction under which they will seek to resolve certain carefully specified matters, so that 'power-holders are forced to compete for the loyalty of their shared constituents'.
Several months later, Lord Phillips, then Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales supported the idea that sharia could be reasonably employed as a basis for "mediation or other forms of alternative dispute resolution", and explained that "It is not very radical to advocate embracing sharia law in the context of family disputes, for example, and our system already goes a long way towards accommodating the archbishop's suggestion."[207]
In March 2014, The Law Society issued guidance on how to draft sharia-compliant wills for the network of sharia courts which been established to deal with disputes between Muslim families.[208] The guidance was withdrawn later in 2014 following criticism by solicitors and by Chris Grayling, the Justice Secretary.[209]
In 2016–2018 an independent panel commissioned by the UK government investigated the practices of sharia councils operating in England and Wales. The councils have no legal status and no legal jurisdiction in the UK. Estimates for their number range between 30 and 85. The investigation found that most people consulting the councils are women seeking an Islamic divorce. The review concluded that "there is unanimous agreement among the sharia councils themselves that discriminatory practices do occur in some instances within the councils in England and Wales" and made legislative and administrative recommendations to remedy the abuses. The panel was not aware of any sharia councils operating in Scotland.[210]
According to Kaveri Qureshi, while women educate themselves and follow Islamic norms and values referring to colonial era Islamic advice literature about marriage not for continuation but to end their marriages and for justification of remarriages contrary to original intention of authors of the literature.[211]
In 2013, there were 40 Muslim players in the English Premier League, up from one in 1992. Man of the Match awardees were awarded bottles of champagne, which is forbidden in Islam, and after Muslim player Yaya Toure refused the award, champagne was phased out for small trophies instead. Children playing football have been seen falling to their knees as if in prayer after scoring a goal, a common practice of Muslim footballers.[219]
An estimated 5,200 Britons convert to Islam each year, with around 100,000 converts reported by 2013. For men, prisons have been a notable setting for conversions. Approximately 18% of the British prison population, or over 14,000 individuals, identify as Muslim, disproportionately higher than the general population.[222] The proportion of Muslims in the UK prison population rose from 8% in 2002 to 15% in 2016.[223] In 2013, the UK prison officers' union reported instances where some Muslim prisoners allegedly pressured fellow inmates to convert to Islam.[224] There have also been cases where non-Muslim prisoners faced threats of violence, with 'convert or get hurt' being a phrase used among certain groups, as claimed by a government report.[225][226][227] Additionally, a 2023 study identified tensions between Hindu and Muslim students in some schools, with reports of Hindu students being called 'kaffirs,' pressured to convert, and also facing xenophobic slurs from Christian peers.[228] A 2010 report by the Chief Inspector of Prisons found that 30% of Muslim prisoners interviewed converted to Islam while in prison, with some identified as "convenience Muslims" adopting the faith for specific benefits.[229] Mosques in the country are sometimes seen as ethnic clubs which are not welcoming of new converts but there have also been recent convert led mosques.[230]
Islam has also shown a greater success in rehabilitating inmates compared to other state-sanctioned programs, and research has noted that the religion is linked to positive outcomes for inmates.[231] A study has noted that prisons serve as significant environments for religious reflection and change, with many inmates converting to Islam as a path toward repentance, moral reform, and rehabilitation. While conversions are often motivated by genuine piety and the need for emotional support, they also correlate with improved engagement in work and education.[232][233]
According to Gilles de Kerchove in 2017, the UK had the highest number of Islamist radicals in the EU numbering between 20-25,000. Of those, 3000 were considered a direct threat by MI5 and 500 were under constant surveillance.[234] Among those known to security services but not considered an immediate threat were the terrorists of three ISIS-linkedattacks in 2017which killed 35 victims in the UK.[234]
In June 2017, Jeremy Corbyn, leader of the Labour Party, said that difficult conversations are needed, starting with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states that have funded and fuelled extremist ideology, and has also urged an immediate halt to UK arms exports to Saudi Arabia.[235][236][237]Tom Brake, Liberal Democrat, foreign affairs spokesman has said that Saudi Arabia provides funding to hundreds of mosques in the UK, espousing a very hardline Wahhabist interpretation of Islam.[238] In July 2017, a report by the Henry Jackson Society, a neo-conservative[239][240] think tank, claimed that Middle Eastern nations are financially supporting mosques and educational institutions linked to spreading extremist material with "an illiberal, bigoted Wahhabi ideology".[241][242] The report said that the number of Salafi and Wahhabi mosques in Britain had increased from 68 in 2007 to 110 in 2014.[243]
Between 2011 and 2014, more British Muslims traveled to Syria to join ISIS and Al-Nusra Front than enlisted in the British Armed Forces,[244] with estimates suggesting around 1,500 joined these groups, compared to 220 who enlisted in the British army, navy or air forces.[245][246] Contributing factors suggested for this trend include low integration levels, idolatry towards the ISIS, and certain community pressures.[247][248]
Political scientists Olivier Roy and Gilles Kepel offer differing perspectives on the roots of radical Islamist terrorism. Roy argues that many individuals are drawn to fundamentalist Islam only after becoming radicalized,[249] while Kepel suggests that certain ideologies, like Salafism, may lead individuals to violence. Roy also noted that restrictive policies like France’s burkini ban might provoke religious violence,[250] but Kepel countered that the UK has experienced jihadist attacks despite having no such policies.[250]
A 2020 report indicated that British Muslims share similar concerns with the general population regarding Muslim extremism, with 63% expressing some level of worry. British Muslims were also slightly more likely (66%) than others (63%) to report individuals to the Prevent programme if concerned about radicalization, and 80% supported Prevent once they understood its goals.[251][252] Additionally, as of 2023, Muslim extremism represents a significant portion of MI5's caseload and related arrests, with nine-tenths of the individuals on its watchlist linked to this type of extremism.[253][252][254]
In March 2024, Communities Secretary Michael Gove announced that five organisations would be assessed against the government's new definition of extremism. Three of these organisations, named as Cage, Muslim Association of Britain, and Muslim Engagement and Development, were of concern due to their Islamist orientation and views.[255] The latter two groups threatened to sue after the announcement.[256]
According to British Muslim journalist Mehdi Hasan, "anti-Semitism isn't just tolerated in some sections of the British Muslim community; it's routine and commonplace".[257] A 2016 survey of 5,446 adult Britons, part of a report titled Anti-Semitism in contemporary Great Britain conducted by the London-based Institute for Jewish Policy Research found that the prevalence of antisemitic views among Muslims was two to four times higher than the rest of the population,[258] that 55% of British Muslims held at least one antisemitic view (compared to 30% of the general population), and that there was a correlation between Muslim religiosity and antisemitism.[259] A 2020 poll by Hope not Hate found that 45% of British Muslims held a generally favourable view of British Jews, and 18% held a negative view.[260]
In March 2024, the Deputy Prime Minister, Oliver Dowden, suspended the Civil Service Muslim Network (CSMN) over alleged antisemitic remarks and activities. The network was criticized for hosting webinars that instructed civil servants on lobbying to change government policy on Israel, promoting 'resistance' to government stances, and advising members on avoiding disciplinary action.[261]
Relations with wider society
Attitudes of British Muslims
According to the 2006 Pew Global Attitudes Survey, around 81% of Muslims think of themselves as Muslim first. This is consistent with Muslims living in Muslim-majority countries, who also tend to think of themselves as Muslim first rather than identifying with nation states (for example 87% of Pakistanis identify themselves as Muslim first rather than Pakistani).[262] However, around 83% of Muslims are proud to be a British citizen, compared to 79% of the general public, 77% of Muslims strongly identify with Britain while only 50% of the wider population do, 86.4% of Muslims feel they belong in Britain, slightly more than the 85.9% of Christians, 82% of Muslims want to live in diverse and mixed neighbourhoods compared to 63% of non-Muslim Britons.[263] In polls taken across Europe in 2006, British Muslims hold the most negative view of westerners out of all Muslims in Europe, whilst overall in Britain 63% of British hold the most favourable view of Muslims out of all the European countries (down from 67% the year before).[264]
In the wake of the cartoon depiction of Muhammad in Danish newspapers and the 7/7 attacks, a 2006 ICM Research poll found that 97% of British Muslims believed it was wrong to show Muhammad with 86% of respondents feeling personally offended by the depiction.[265] 96% believed it was wrong for Muslims to have bombed London during 7/7, although 20% had sympathy with the feelings and motives of the attackers. 40% of those surveyed also supported the introduction of Sharia law in Muslim-majority areas of Britain.[266] Another poll by GfK revealed that 28% of British Muslims hoped that Britain would one day become an Islamic state, while 52% disagreed, and 20% did not venture an opinion either way.[267]
On religious issues, a 2007 poll by Populus reported that 36% of 16 to 24 year olds believed if a Muslim converted to another religion they should be punished by death, compared to 19% of British Muslims aged over 55. The polling also reported that 59% of Muslims would prefer to live under British law, compared to 28% who would prefer to live under Sharia law. 61% of respondents agreed with the statement that homosexuality is wrong and should be illegal.[268][269][270] This appeared to be borne out by a Gallup poll in 2009 of 500 British Muslims, none of whom believed that homosexuality was morally acceptable.[271] Such polls suggest that British Muslims have strongly conservative views on issues relating to extra-marital and/or homosexual sexual acts compared with their European Muslim counterparts – who are markedly more liberal.[271]
A survey by Gallup in 2009 found that the Muslim community claimed to feel more patriotic about Britain than the general British population as a whole,[272][273] while another survey found that Muslims assert that they support the role of Christianity in British life more so than British Christians themselves.[274]
However, a poll conducted by Demos in 2011 reported that a greater proportion of Muslims (47% – slightly higher than the 46.5% of Christians who agreed with the statement) than other religions agreed with the statement "I am proud of how Britain treats gay people", with less than 11% disagreeing.[275][276][277] On 18 May 2013, just as the bill to legalise same-sex marriages was being prepared to pass into law, over 400 leading Muslims including head teachers and senior representatives of mosques across the country, published an open letter opposing the bill on the grounds that "Muslim parents will be robbed of their right to raise their children according to their beliefs, as homosexual relationships are taught as something normal to their primary-aged children".[278] A face-to-face survey conducted in 2015 by ICM Research for Channel 4 found that 18 per cent of British Muslims agreed with the statement that homosexuality should be legal in Britain, while 52 per cent disagreed, and 22 per cent neither agreed or disagreed.[279][280]
In the wake of the Charlie Hebdo shooting in 2015, a ComRes poll for BBC Radio 4 found that 27% of British Muslims had some sympathy with the motives of the attackers, 45% believed that Muslim clerics who advocate for violence against the west are aligned with mainstream Muslim opinion and 78% of British Muslims were deeply personally offended by the publication of the images of Muhammad. The poll also found that 95% of British Muslims felt loyalty to Britain, 93% believed that Muslims should obey British laws and 46% felt that being Muslim in Britain was difficult due to prejudice.[281][282] In November of the same year, a Survation poll found that 19% of British Muslims had "sympathy with young Muslims who leave the UK to join fighters in Syria" which was a fall from the 28% figure the same polling company recorded in March.[283]
A 2016 report by the right-wing think tank Policy Exchange in conjunction with ICM Research found that 93 per cent of British Muslims hold fairly or very strong attachment to Britain, 53 per cent wanted to "fully integrate with non-Muslims in all aspects of life" and British Muslims were found to be more likely to condemn terrorism than the general population.[284] The report, which was co-authored by Khalid Mahmood MP, also found that British Muslims had "separatist" tendencies and were inclined to believe in conspiracy theories to do with 9/11 and plots to "do down Muslims". When asked what they would do if someone they knew was involved with supporters of terrorism in Syria, only 52% said they would report them to the police.[285][286]
In 2018, Ipsos MORI published a review which analysed previous surveys of British Muslims. The report found that British Muslims placed greater importance on their British and religious identity than the general population. 63% believed that different religious and ethnic groups should mix together more in their local area and Muslim children had higher levels of university aspiration than the general population. British Muslims tended to have more conservative social attitudes, with about half of Muslim men and one third of Muslim women believing that "wives should always obey their husbands" and 38% of Muslim men and 23% of Muslim women believing that it was acceptable to have more than one wife.[287][288]
Protest against Israel's bombing of the Gaza Strip in London on 11 November 2023
A survey carried out by J.L. Partners in 2024 reported that 40 per cent of British Muslims found it desirable for women to take a more traditional role in society, 39 per cent supported the formation of a Muslim political party and 32 per cent supported Islam to be declared the national religion with the same proportion desiring Sharia law to be implemented in the UK.[289] 52 per cent wanted to make it illegal to show a picture of Muhammad, 46 per cent believed Jews have too much power over UK government policy and 41 per cent believed they have too much power over the UK media industry. The survey was conducted between February and March during the Israel–Hamas war; when asked which of the two entities they had sympathy with, 46 per cent of British Muslims sympathised more with Hamas compared to 3 per cent sympathising more with Israel. 36 per cent had a positive view of Hamas, 21 per cent had a positive view of jihad and 24 per cent believed that Hamas committed murder and rape in Israel on October 7th. Younger and more educated Muslims were more likely to hold these beliefs.[290][289] Among 18 to 24 year olds, 65 per cent agreed with the statement that "Israel does not have a right to exist as a Jewish homeland" compared to 34 per cent of 45 to 54 year old British Muslims.[291]
Attitudes towards British Muslims
The British media has been criticised for propagating negative stereotypes of Muslims and fueling Islamophobic prejudice.[292] In 2006, several British cabinet ministers were criticised for helping to "unleash a public anti-Muslim backlash" by blaming the Muslim community over issues of integration despite a study commissioned by the Home Office on white and Asian-Muslim youths demonstrating otherwise: that Asian-Muslim youths "are in fact the most tolerant of all" and that white youths "have far more intolerant attitudes," concluding that the attitudes held by members of the white community was a greater "barrier to integration."[293][294]
In January 2010, the British Social Attitudes Survey found that the general public "is far more likely to hold negative views of Muslims than of any other religious group," with "just one in four" feeling "positively about Islam," and a "majority of the country would be concerned if a mosque was built in their area, while only 15 per cent expressed similar qualms about the opening of a church."[295] The "scapegoating" of British Muslims by the media and politicians in the 21st century has been compared in the media to the rise of antisemitism in the early 20th century.[296]
A 2013 survey by YouGov indicated that immigrants from Muslim countries were perceived as integrating less well into British society than immigrants from other countries, with 71% of respondents believing migrants from Muslim countries were not integrating well.[297] Another YouGov poll conducted in 2015 found that 55% of the British public believed there was a fundamental clash between Islam and the values of British society. Only 22% believed British values and Islam were generally compatible.[298]
In 2015, in light of a growing number of radicalised British Muslims joining ISIS to fight in Syria, a Survation poll for Sky News found that 70% of non-Muslims in the UK believed that British Muslims were not doing enough to integrate into British society, 44% became more suspicious of Muslims and only 30% believed that the values of British society were compatible with Islam. When British Muslims were asked the same questions, over four in five believed that Islamic values were compatible with British society and 71% believed that British Muslims were doing enough to integrate into British society.[299]
In polling conducted by ComRes in 2016, only 28% of those surveyed believed that Islam was compatible with British values. 72% agreed with the statement that "most people in the UK have a negative view of Islam" and 43% believed that Islam was a negative force in the UK. Younger people were more likely to say they have a better understanding of Islam and hold less negative views.[300][301]
A survey conducted in 2017 by Chatham House revealed widespread opposition to Muslim immigration across the UK. 47% were opposed to further Muslim immigration meanwhile 23% disagreed with stopping further migration from mainly Muslim countries. This opposition figure was lower than in other European countries, Austria: 65%; Belgium: 64%; France: 61%; Germany: 53%; Italy: 51%, and lower than the European average of 55%.[302]
In 2019, a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center found that 78% of Britons had a favourable view of Muslims, while 18% had an unfavourable view of Muslims. This was the most favourable in Europe.[303]
A 2021 study published by the University of Birmingham found that Muslims are the British public's second ‘least liked’ group, after Gypsy and Irish Travellers with 25.9% of the
British public holding negative views towards Muslims and 23.5% holding a positive view.[304] People from middle and upper-class backgrounds were more likely to hold prejudiced views about Islam compared to those from working-class backgrounds. 71% of respondents named Islam as having a more negative impact on society compared to other religions with 18.1% of those surveyed supported banning all Muslim migration to the UK.[305]
A survey conducted in 2024 by Opinium for Hope not Hate found that 30 per cent of the British public believed that Islam was a threat to the British way of life and the existence of 'no-go' zones for non-Muslims in European cities. Members of the Conservative party were more likely to hold these views, with 58% believing Islam was a threat and 52% believing in the existence of 'no-go' zones.[306]
There have been cases of threats,[307] one fatal attack,[308] and non-fatal attacks on Muslims and on Muslim targets, including attacks on Muslim graves[309] and mosques.[310] In January 2010, a report from the University of Exeter's European Muslim Research Centre noted that the number of anti-Muslim hate crimes has increased, ranging from "death threats and murder to persistent low-level assaults, such as spitting and name-calling," for which the media and politicians have been blamed with fueling anti-Muslim hatred.[311][312][313] However, Met Police figures showed an 8.5 per cent fall in anti-Muslim crimes between 2009 and 2012, with a spike in 2013 due to the murder of Lee Rigby.[314] In the four months following the 2023 Israel-Gaza conflict, Tell MAMA reported a more than three-fold increase in Islamophobic incidents to 2,010, with Muslim women targeted in two-thirds of incidents.[315]
Most British Muslims, particularly those of South Asian descent, share cultural traditions, histories, and ethnic ties with the British Sikh community, as well as with British Hindus.[331] The majority of Sikhs oppose strongly anti-Muslim groups like the BNP and EDL, and the anti-Muslim campaigns of the BNP have been condemned by all leading Sikh organizations.[332][333] However, it has been reported that some extremists from the Sikh community have aligned themselves with the BNP.[334] It has also been noted that some Sikhs adopted prevalent racial prejudices in the West, leading to a variant of Islamophobia within the Sikh community that mirrors broader Islamophobic discourse.[335][336]
In 2018, Sikh Youth UK’s report claimed similarities between the exploitation of young Sikh women and the Rotherham scandal.[337] However, a 2019 critique from two Sikh academics and a UK government report found the allegations to be false and misleading, lacking solid data and promoting historical tensions "designed to whip up fear and hate".[338][339] Research by Katy Sian of the University of York further debunked these claims, attributing them to extremist Sikh groups.[340][341]
^Scotland held its census a year later after the rest of the United Kingdom due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, data shown is for 2022 as opposed to 2021.
^Shaw, Alison (4 April 2011). "Review of Crime and Muslim Britain: Culture and the Politics of Criminology among British Pakistanis by Marta Bolognani". Journal of Islamic Studies. 22 (2). Oxford Journals: 288–291. doi:10.1093/jis/etr020.
^Muslims in Britain: an Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.xvii + 318, ISBN978-0-521-83006-5
^Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 35. ISBN1-85065-685-1.
^Ansari, Humayun (2004). The Infidel Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 to the Present. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 37. ISBN1-85065-685-1.
^Khizar Humayun Ansari, 'Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (1872–1953)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Oct 2012; online edn, Jan 2013 accessed 6 February 2020
^Lustig, Robin; Bailey, Martin; de Bruxelles, Simon; Mather, Ian (19 February 1989). "War of the Word". The Observer. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
^Gilliat-Ray, Sophie (2010). Muslims in Britain. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. ISBN9780521536882., reported in Field, Clive. "How Many Muslims?". British Religion in Numbers. Archived from the original on 7 April 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2014.
^"Iraq: Mapping exercise"(PDF). London: International Organization for Migration. March 2007. Archived from the original(PDF) on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
^International Organization for Migration (2007). "Iraq: Mapping exercise"(PDF). London: International Organization for Migration. p. 5. Archived from the original(PDF) on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
^Yilmaz, Ihsan (2005). Muslim Laws, Politics and Society in Modern Nation States: Dynamic Legal Pluralisms in England, Turkey and Pakistan. Ashgate Publishing. p. 153. ISBN0-7546-4389-1..
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^ abcIssa, Tözün (2005). Talking Turkey: the language, culture and identity of Turkish speaking children in Britain. Trentham Books. p. 8. ISBN978-1-85856-318-3.
^Geaves, Ron (2001). "The Haqqani Naqshbandi: A Study of Apocalyptic Millennnialism within Islam". In Porter, Stanley E.; Hayes, Michael A.; Tombs, David (eds.). Faith in the Millennium. Sheffield Academic Press. p. 218. ISBN1-84127-092-X.
^Ahmadiyya Muslim Mosques Around The World - A Pictorical Presentation. Ahmadiyya Muslim Community; Khilafat Centenary Edition. 2008. p. 253. ISBN978-1882494514.
^"English Defence League's Bradford march banned by Theresa May". Metro. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2011. The right-wing campaign group, which claims to be taking a stand against what it sees as the rise of radical Islam in England, had planned to march through the streets of Bradford on 28 August.
^"Violence erupts at far-right march in Birmingham". Reuters. 5 September 2009. Archived from the original on 26 July 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2011. A little-known nationalist group calling itself the English Defence League met in the town centre to protest against what they see as Islamic militancy in Britain
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Further reading
Koenig, Matthias. "Incorporating Muslim migrants in Western nation states—a comparison of the United Kingdom, France, and Germany." in Marian Burchardt & Ines Michalowski, eds., After Integration (Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2015) pp. 43–58.
Lewicki, Aleksandra, and Therese O’Toole. "Acts and practices of citizenship: Muslim women’s activism in the UK. Ethnic and Racial Studies 40#1 (2017): 152-171.
Lewicki, Aleksandra. Social Justice Through Citizenship?: The Politics of Muslim Integration in Germany and Great Britain (Springer, 2014).
Lewis, Valerie A., and Ridhi Kashyap. "Piety in a Secular Society: Migration, Religiosity, and Islam in Britain." International Migration 51#3 (2013): 57–66.
Model, Suzanne, and Lang Lin. "The cost of not being Christian: Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims in Britain and Canada." International Migration Review 36#4 (2002): 1061–1092.
Peach, Ceri, and Richard Gale. "Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs in the new religious landscape of England." Geographical Review 93#4 (2003): 469–490.
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