第三次鼠疫大流行

东北大鼠疫(1910-1911年)
卡拉奇鼠疫疫情(1897年,英属印度

第三次鼠疫大流行(英語:Third plague pandemic),是人类历史上鼠疫的第三次大流行,起始于1855年清朝咸丰年间云南,直到20世纪中叶逐渐结束[1][2][3][4][5]。此次鼠疫为腺鼠疫,于1890年代传播到香港广州等地,此后逐渐传播到世界上至少60余个国家和地区[5],造成疫情大流行,导致全球约1200万至1500万人死亡,是人类历史上致死人数最多的流行病之一[1][3][4][6][7][8]

此次鼠疫大流行中,印度于1898年-1908年间即有约600万人死亡,其它较为重大的疫情包括香港鼠疫东北大鼠疫[3][7][9]。1894年,法国科学家亚历山大·耶尔辛在香港首次成功分离出鼠疫杆菌(后人称“耶尔辛氏菌”)[6][9][10];1897年,法国犹太裔微生物学沃尔德玛·哈夫金发明了人类首剂鼠疫疫苗[11][12][13]

疫情历史

起源

人类历史上第一次鼠疫大流行(开端为查士丁尼瘟疫)、第二次鼠疫大流行(开端为黑死病)曾造成欧洲人口锐减[2][14]。1855年,清朝云南地区爆发鼠疫、成为第三次鼠疫大流行的源头,而此前从1772年起,该地区已出现多次小规模疫情[1][2][3][5][6]

中国大陆及香港疫情

1856年-1873年间,云南回变,但被清军镇压,与此同时鼠疫开始流行[15][16]。1882年,鼠疫传播到广西北海,由前往云南地区平叛的清军带回[15][16]

1894年,鼠疫传播到了广州香港等地,导致大流行、造成了香港鼠疫[7]。1894年3月至6月之间,据不完全统计,广州有约4万人死亡[17]。1894年5月,香港成为疫区,而据英屬香港政府、《香港历史图说》等记载,香港地区(香港島、九龍)死亡至少2500余人[17]

此后,从19世纪末到中华人民共和国成立,中国大陆先后发生过六次较大的鼠疫疫情,波及20多个省(区),发病人数约115万、死亡约100万人[1]。其中较为重大的疫情包括东北大鼠疫、山西鼠疫、察北鼠疫等,在东三省一度出现“全村绝户,重病必死”的情况[2][3]。清政府曾成立“京师防疫事务局”以应对东三省的鼠疫蔓延,并在山海关设立了检验所[3]

其它地区疫情

此后疫情蔓延到了世界其它地区,鼠疫通过蒸汽商船由海上传播到日本新加坡台湾以及印度等地,此后又传播到里约热内卢夏威夷旧金山悉尼开普敦等地[4][6][7]。全球至少五大洲、60多个国家和地区都爆发了鼠疫疫情,其中印度于1898年-1908年间即有约600万人因此死亡[5][7],其它发生疫情的地区包括:

死亡人数

据各方估计,此次疫情在全球范围内共造成1200万-1500万人死亡,大多数集中在印度中国以及印度尼西亚的人口密集地区,是历史上致死人数最多的流行病之一[1][3][4][6][7][8][25]。此次疫情直到二十世纪中叶(1959年左右)才结束, 依据世界卫生组织,此后世界范围内每年因鼠疫死亡人数最低降至约200人[7][25]

科学研究

鼠疫杆菌(放大200倍)

1894年,法国科学家亚历山大·耶尔辛前往香港调查当地鼠疫疫情,并首次成功分离出鼠疫杆菌(后人因此称鼠疫杆菌为“耶尔辛氏菌”)[6][9][10]。他的发现及时促成了现代的鼠疫预防和治疗手段,譬如杀虫剂抗生素以及鼠疫疫苗等[9][10]

1897年,法国犹太裔微生物学家沃尔德玛·哈夫金印度孟买省发明了首剂鼠疫疫苗,随即在当地开始了大规模接种[11][12][13]

1898年,法国研究人员保尔–路易·西蒙德英语Paul-Louis Simond展示了跳蚤是如何作为鼠疫传播的载体[26][27]。鼠疫常由携带鼠疫杆菌的跳蚤叮咬引起,而跳蚤来自于被感染的宿主(常为黑鼠[27][28]

1910年,东北大鼠疫期间,知名医学家伍连德在防疫过程中扮演了重要角色,发现了旱獭在传播鼠疫中的作用,确认了肺鼠疫由“呼吸”和“飞沫”传播,并采取了多种防治措施在数月之内控制住了疫情[1]。1911年4月,清政府曾在沈阳举办“万国鼠疫研究会”,有11国参与、由伍连德主持,此后还在哈尔滨建立了“鼠疫研究所”、伍连德任所长[3][29]

参见

参考资料

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 赵欣. 历史上那些骇人的传染病[疫情科普系列之九]. 中国科学院微生物研究所. 2020-02. (原始内容存档于2021-04-20) (中文). 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 小小老鼠,酿成大疫 鼠疫究竟是什么?. 中国疾病预防控制中心. 2017-10-31. (原始内容存档于2021-01-28) (中文). 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 鼠疫血清的背后,躺着一亿八千七百万具尸体. 中国网. 2020-07-11. (原始内容存档于2021-02-01) (中文). 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Josh Sanburn. Top 10 Terrible Epidemics. 《时代周刊》(Time). 2010-10-26. ISSN 0040-781X. (原始内容存档于2021-02-14) (美国英语). 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Shi, Liyuan; Yang, Guirong; Zhang, Zhikai; Xia, Lianxu; Liang, Ying; Tan, Hongli; He, Jinrong; Xu, Jianguo; Song, Zhizhong. Reemergence of human plague in Yunnan, China in 2016. PLoS ONE. 2018-06-13, 13 (6). ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5999221可免费查阅. PMID 29897940. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198067. 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Bramanti, Barbara; Dean, Katharine R.; Walløe, Lars; Chr. Stenseth, Nils. The Third Plague Pandemic in Europe. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2019-04-24, 286 (1901). ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 6501942可免费查阅. PMID 30991930. doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.2429. (原始内容存档于2020-03-25). 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 WHO Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases (PDF). 世界卫生组织(WHO). (原始内容 (PDF)存档于2021-03-19) (英语). 
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Myron Echenberg. Pestis Redux: The Initial Years of the Third Bubonic Plague Pandemic, 1894-1901 (PDF). Journal of World History. 2002, 13 (2): 429-449. 
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Butler, T. Plague history: Yersin's discovery of the causative bacterium in 1894 enabled, in the subsequent century, scientific progress in understanding the disease and the development of treatments and vaccines. Clinical Microbiology and Infection: The Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 2014-03, 20 (3): 202–209. ISSN 1469-0691. PMID 24438235. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12540. (原始内容存档于2021-02-04). 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 鐘金湯; 劉仲康. 耶爾辛——鼠疫菌的發現者-科技大觀園. 科技大觀園. 2004-07-06. (原始内容存档于2021-02-01) (中文(臺灣)). 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Joel Gunter, Vikas Pandey. Waldemar Haffkine: The vaccine pioneer the world forgot. BBC News. 2020-12-11. (原始内容存档于2021-04-10) (英国英语). 
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Joel Gunter; Vikas Pandey. 沃尔德玛·哈夫金:被世界遗忘的疫苗先驱. 英国广播公司(BBC). 中国医疗. 2020-12-11. (原始内容存档于2021-04-16) (中文). 
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 WALDEMAR MORDECAI HAFFKINE. Haffkine Institute. (原始内容存档于2015-09-24) (英语). 
  14. ^ 教科文组织:黑死病在丝绸之路上的传播给人们带来何种启示?. 联合国. 2020-04-01 [2020-12-07]. (原始内容存档于2021-04-08) (中文). 
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 赖文,李永宸. 粮食、习俗、卫生与十九世纪的岭南瘟疫. 《中国中医基础医学杂志》. 2004, (10). (原始内容存档于2021-02-01). 
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 曹树基,李玉尚. 历史时期中国的鼠疫自然疫源地 (PDF). 上海交通大学 (中文). 
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 姬凌辉. 1894年香港鼠疫中的“太平山事件”. 澎湃新闻. 2016-05-23. (原始内容存档于2021-01-31) (中文). 
  18. ^ "Plague Hospital in Porto - 1899". Apollo - University of Cambridge Repository (Institut Pasteur(巴斯德研究院)). 2018-11-08. doi:10.17863/CAM.32180. (原始内容存档于2021-02-06) (英语). 
  19. ^ Honolulu's Battle with Bubonic Plague. All about Hawaii: The Recognized Book of Authentic Information on Hawaii, Combined with Thrum's Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Honolulu Star-Bulletin. 1900: 97 [2020-12-28]. (原始内容存档于2020-08-19) (英语). 
  20. ^ KEVIN R. BAILEY. PLAGUE IN PARADISE: A STUDY OF PLAGUE ON HAWAIIAN SUGARCANE PLANTATIONS (PDF). 俄勒冈大学 (University of Oregon). 2007-06. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-08-09) (英语). 
  21. ^ Bubonic plague. 澳大利亚国立博物馆 (National Museum of Australia). (原始内容存档于2019-05-27) (英语). 
  22. ^ Journal of the American Medical Association 36. American Medical Association. 1901: 1042. (原始内容存档于2016-05-07) (英语). 
  23. ^ Rats 'wrongly blamed' for 1900 Glasgow plague outbreak. BBC News. 2019-01-02. (原始内容存档于2021-02-20) (英国英语). 
  24. ^ R. POLLITZER. PLAGUE STUDIES 1. A Summary of the History and a Survey of the Present Distribution of the Disease (PDF). Bull. World Hlth Org. 1951, (4): 475-533. 
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 John Frith. The History of Plague – Part 1. The Three Great Pandemics. Journal of Military and Veterans' Health. 2012-04. (原始内容存档于2019-10-02) (英语). 
  26. ^ Mollaret, H. H. [The discovery by Paul-Louis Simond of the role of the flea in the transmission of the plague]. Bulletin De La Societe De Pathologie Exotique (1990). 1999-12, 92 (5 Pt 2): 383–387. ISSN 0037-9085. PMID 11000944. 
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 Simond, M.; Godley, M. L.; Mouriquand, P. D. Paul-Louis Simond and his discovery of plague transmission by rat fleas: a centenary. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 1998-02, 91 (2): 101–104. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1296502可免费查阅. PMID 9602755. doi:10.1177/014107689809100219. (原始内容存档于2021-01-31). 
  28. ^ Simond, M.; Godley, M. L.; Mouriquand, P. D. Paul-Louis Simond and his discovery of plague transmission by rat fleas: a centenary. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 1998-02, 91 (2): 101–104. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1296502可免费查阅. PMID 9602755. doi:10.1177/014107689809100219. (原始内容存档于2021-01-31). 
  29. ^ 于永敏; 刘进; 王忠云. 沈阳万国鼠疫研究会始末. 中国知网. 中国科技史料. 1995年. (原始内容存档于2021-02-04). 

Read other articles:

For the Catholic religious institute in Michigan and Pennsylvania, see Sisters, Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of MaryEstablished1848; 175 years ago (1848)FounderFr. Joaquim Masmitjà i de PuigFounded atOlot, Catalonia, Spain, Colwich, KansasTypeCentralized Religious Institute of Consecrated Life of Pontifical Right (for Women)PurposeEducational workHeadquartersGeneral motherhouse Colwich, KansasMother GeneralMother Mary Magdalen IH...

 

Location of Ukraine Ukraine is a sovereign state in Eastern Europe,[1] Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2 (233,062 sq mi),[2] making it the largest country entirely within Europe and the 46th largest country in the world, and a population of about 44.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands, and it remains one of the world's largest grain exporters. ...

 

Assortment of cooking traditions of Sephardic Jews See also: Jewish cuisine, Mizrahi Jewish cuisine, Israeli cuisine, and Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine Couscous with vegetables and chickpeas Boyoz pastry, a regional specialty of Izmir, Turkey introduced to Ottoman cuisine by the Sephardim[1] Sephardic Jewish cuisine is an assortment of cooking traditions that developed among the Sephardi Jews. Those of this Iberian origin who were dispersed in the Sephardic Diaspora ultimately became the E...

Duaja (panji kejayaan) - desain tiang bendera dengan selendang sutra, dengan Istana Potala sebagai latar belakangnya. Duaja (Dewanagari: ध्वज; ,IAST: dhvaja,; Tibet: རྒྱལ་མཚན; Wylie: rgyal-msthan) adalah kata dari bahasa Sanskerta yang berarti panji atau bendera. Dalam agama dharma (Hindu, Jaina, Buddha), duaja merupakan salah satu Astamanggala, yaitu 'delapan benda pembawa keberuntungan'. Dalam tradisi Hindu, duaja dapat berupa tiang tinggi (dw...

 

1719 painting by Antoine Watteau Fêtes VénitiennesArtistAntoine WatteauYear1719CatalogueH 25; G 135; DV 6; R 146; HA 197; EC 180; F A34; RT 96Mediumoil on canvasDimensions56 cm × 46 cm (22 in × 18 in)LocationNational Galleries of Scotland, EdinburghAccessionNG 439 Fêtes Vénitiennes is a 1719 painting by Antoine Watteau, now in the Scottish National Gallery in Edinburgh, to which it was bequeathed in 1861 by Lady Murray of Henderland, widow of Jo...

 

2020 Belgian Grand Prix Race 7 of 17[a] in the 2020 Formula One World Championship← Previous raceNext race → Layout of the Spa-Francorchamps circuitRace detailsDate 30 August 2020Official name Formula 1 Rolex Belgian Grand Prix 2020Location Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps, Stavelot, BelgiumCourse Permanent racing facilityCourse length 7.004 km (4.352 miles)Distance 44 laps, 308.052 km (191.415 miles)Weather Partly cloudyAttendance 0[b]Pole positionDriver L...

Activity that holds attention or gives pleasure General entertainment redirects here. For the television channel format, see Generalist channel. For other uses, see Entertainment (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Entertainment – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (Mar...

 

2015–2017 video on demand store BBC StoreDeveloperBBC WorldwideTypeVideo on DemandLaunch dateNovember 5, 2015; 8 years ago (2015-11-05) [1][2]DiscontinuedNovember 1, 2017; 6 years ago (2017-11-01)Platform(s)BBC iPlayerStatusClosedWebsiteArchived official website at the Wayback Machine (archive index) BBC Store was a video on demand store that launched in the UK on 5 November 2015 and opened the BBC Archive to consumers, allowing them t...

 

Guadalcanal Eiland van Vlag van Salomonseilanden Salomonseilanden Locatie Land Vlag van Salomonseilanden Salomonseilanden Eilandengroep Salomonseilanden Locatie Grote Oceaan Coördinaten 9°35'24ZB, 160°14'6OL Algemeen Oppervlakte 5336 km² Inwoners (2018) 144.592 Hoofdplaats Honiara Hoogste punt Mount Popomanaseu (2335 m) Landgebruik bewoning, landbouw, mijnbouw, bosbouw Foto's Honiara Kaart van de Guadalcanal Guadalcanal is het grootste van de Salomonseilanden, gelegen in de zuid...

Sharp, bitter remark Sarcasm is the caustic use of words, often in a humorous way, to mock someone or something.[1] Sarcasm may employ ambivalence,[2] although it is not necessarily ironic.[3] Most noticeable in spoken word, sarcasm is mainly distinguished by the inflection with which it is spoken[4] or, with an undercurrent of irony, by the extreme disproportion of the comment to the situation, and is largely context-dependent.[5] Etymology The word co...

 

Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento film commedia non cita le fonti necessarie o quelle presenti sono insufficienti. Puoi migliorare questa voce aggiungendo citazioni da fonti attendibili secondo le linee guida sull'uso delle fonti. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Grande, grosso e... VerdoneCarlo Verdone (Moreno Vecchiarutti)Lingua originaleitaliano Paese di produzioneItalia Anno2008 Durata127 min Generecommedia RegiaCarlo Verdone SoggettoCarlo Verdone, Piero De Bernar...

 

Defeated California ballot proposition Elections in California Federal government U.S. President 1852 1856 1860 1864 1868 1872 1876 1880 1884 1888 1892 1896 1900 1904 1908 1912 1916 1920 1924 1928 1932 1936 1940 1944 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 Dem Rep 2000 Dem Rep 2004 Dem Rep 2008 Dem Rep 2012 Dem Rep 2016 Dem Rep 2020 Dem Rep 2024 Dem Rep U.S. Senate 1849 1850 1852 sp 1856 1857 sp 1860 1860 sp 1868 1872 1873 1873 sp 1878 1880 1885 1886 sp 1887 1891 1891...

Johnny LeverJohnny Lever pada 2011Nama lahirJohn Prakasa Rao JanumalaLahir14 Agustus 1957 (umur 66)Kanigiri, Andhra Pradesh, India[1]KebangsaanIndiaSuami/istriSujata JanumalaAnakJamie JanumalaJesse JanumalaRelasiJimmy Moses (saudara) Johnny Lever (kelahiran 14 Agustus 1957)[2] adalah seorang aktor film India dan salah satu komedian paling terkenal dalam sinema Hindi. Lever adalah salah satu komedian tunggal pertama di India.[3] Lever telah meraih tiga belas nomina...

 

Iglesia de Santa María la Mayor Bien de Interés Cultural LocalizaciónPaís España EspañaComunidad Castilla-La Mancha Castilla-La ManchaProvincia Toledo ToledoLocalidad Talavera de la ReinaCoordenadas 39°57′27″N 4°49′55″O / 39.9575, -4.83194444Información religiosaCulto Iglesia católicaDiócesis Archidiócesis de ToledoOrden Clero secularAdvocación Santa María la MayorHistoria del edificioConstrucción Siglos XIV-XVDatos arquitectónicosTipo Ig...

 

亚历山大·贝里斯特伦出生1986年1月18日  (37歲)乌斯比 職業冰球运动员  亚历山大·贝里斯特伦(瑞典語:Alexander Bergström,1986年1月18日—),瑞典男子冰球运动员,场上位置是前锋。他曾代表瑞典国家队参加2018年冬季奥林匹克运动会冰球比赛,获得第5名。[1] 参考资料 ^ Alexander Bergström. Elite Prospects. [2022-09-25]. (原始内容存档于2022-12-08).  查论...

Piala SwediaMulai digelar1941Wilayah SwediaJumlah tim96 (2012–13)Juara bertahanIFK GöteborgTim tersuksesMalmö FF(14 gelar)Televisi penyiarTV4Situs webSvenska Cupen Piala Swedia 2013–14 Piala Swedia (bahasa Swedia: Svenska Cupen), adalah kejuaraan nasional sepak bola di Swedia. Mulai diselenggarakan sejak 1941, pemenangnya berhak mengikuti Liga Eropa UEFA pada musim berikutnya. Daftar juara Key Juara juga memenangkan Liga Swedia pada musim yang sama Klub yang bermain di luar div...

 

UPC PolskaIndustryTelecommunicationsPredecessorPlayFounded1989 (as Polska Telewizja Kablowa)October 2000 (as UPC Polska)FateDiscontinued in favor of PlayHeadquartersWarsaw, PolandArea servedPolandProductsCable televisionBroadband internetTelephoneRevenue$469.9 million[1]OwnerPlayParentIliad SAWebsitewww.upc.pl UPC Polska (English: UPC Poland) was Iliad's telecommunications operation in Poland.[2] It is one of the largest provider of broadband internet, digital television, tele...

 

Castel SchöneckBurg SchöneckCastel SchöneckUbicazioneStato attuale Italia RegioneTrentino-Alto Adige CittàFalzes IndirizzoVia Hasenried, 13 Coordinate46°49′08.1″N 11°51′03.43″E / 46.818917°N 11.850953°E46.818917; 11.850953Coordinate: 46°49′08.1″N 11°51′03.43″E / 46.818917°N 11.850953°E46.818917; 11.850953 Informazioni generaliTipoCastello Altezza1058 m Proprietario attualeproprietà privata Visitabileno voci di architetture mili...

Book by Anton Szandor LaVey The Satanic Witch Cover of the first editionAuthorAnton LaVeyOriginal titleThe Compleat WitchCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishSubjectLesser magic, witchcraftPublisherDodd, Mead & Company (1971)Lancer Books (1972)Feral House (1989, 2003–present)Publication date1971Media typePrint (Hardcover & Paperback)Pages284ISBN978-0922915842 The Satanic Witch is a book by Anton LaVey, currently published by Feral House. The book is a treatise on lesser magi...

 

Australian sketch comedy television series Kinne TonightGenre Crude Comedy Created byTroy Kinne Max PriceWritten byTroy Kinne Max PriceDirected byTroy Kinne Max PricePresented byTroy KinneStarringSee castCountry of originAustraliaOriginal languageEnglishNo. of seasons2No. of episodes13 (list of episodes)ProductionExecutive producerAndy McIntyreProducers Nicole Dixon Rachel Millar Michelle Wyatt Production locationsMelbourne, VictoriaRunning time30 minutes (inc. adverts)Production companies Bi...

 

Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!