In Greek mythology, sirens (Ancient Greek: singular: Σειρήν, Seirḗn; plural: Σειρῆνες, Seirênes) are female humanlike beings with alluring voices; they appear in a scene in the Odyssey in which Odysseus saves his crew's lives.[1] Roman poets place them on some small islands called Sirenum scopuli. In some later, rationalized traditions, the literal geography of the "flowery" island of Anthemoessa, or Anthemusa,[2] is fixed: sometimes on Cape Pelorum and at others in the islands known as the Sirenuse, near Paestum, or in Capreae.[3] All such locations were surrounded by cliffs and rocks.
Sirens continued to be used as a symbol of the dangerous temptation embodied by women regularly throughout Christian art of the medieval era. "Siren" can also be used as a slang term for a woman considered both very attractive and dangerous.[4]
Nomenclature
Archaic perfume vase in the shape of a siren, c. 540 BC
The etymology of the name is contested. Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin.[5] Others connect the name to σειρά (seirá, "rope, cord") and εἴρω (eírō, "to tie, join, fasten"), resulting in the meaning "binder, entangler",[6][better source needed] i.e. one who binds or entangles through magic song. This could be connected to the famous scene of Odysseus being bound to the mast of his ship, to resist their song.[7]
Sirens were later often used as a synonym for mermaids and portrayed with upper human bodies and fish tails. This combination became iconic in the medieval period.[8][9] The circumstances leading to the commingling involve the treatment of sirens in the medieval Physiologus and bestiaries, both iconographically,[10] as well as textually in translations from Latin to vulgar languages,[a][11] as described below.
Iconography
Classical iconography
Moaning siren statuette from Myrina, first century BC
The sirens of Greek mythology first appeared in Homer's Odyssey, where Homer did not provide any physical descriptions, and their visual appearance was left to the readers' imagination. It was Apollonius of Rhodes in Argonautica (3rd century BC) who described the sirens in writing as part woman and part bird.[b][12][13] By the 7th century BC, sirens were regularly depicted in art as human-headed birds.[14] They may have been influenced by the ba-bird of Egyptian religion. In early Greek art, the sirens were generally represented as large birds with women's heads, bird feathers and scaly feet. Later depictions shifted to show sirens with human upper bodies and bird legs, with or without wings. They were often shown playing a variety of musical instruments, especially the lyre, kithara, and aulos.[15]
The tenth-century Byzantine dictionary Suda stated that sirens (Ancient Greek: Σειρῆνας)[c] had the form of sparrows from their chests up, and below they were women or that they were little birds with women's faces.[16]
Originally, sirens were shown as male or female, but the male siren disappeared from art around the fifth century BC.[17]
Early siren-mermaids
Miniature illustration of a siren enticing sailors who try to resist her, from an English Bestiary, c. 1235
Some surviving Classical period examples had already depicted the siren as mermaid-like.[8] The sirens are described as mermaids or "tritonesses" in examples dating to the 3rd century BC, including an earthenware bowl found in Athens[20][22] and a terracotta oil lamp possibly from the Roman period.[8]
The first known literary attestation of siren as a "mermaid" appeared in the Anglo-Latin catalogue Liber Monstrorum (early 8th century AD), where it says that sirens were "sea-girls... with the body of a maiden, but have scaly fishes' tails".[23][24]
The siren appeared in several illustrated manuscripts of the Physiologus and its successors called the bestiaries. The siren was depicted as a half-woman and half-fish mermaid in the 9th century Berne Physiologus,[25] as an early example, but continued to be illustrated with both bird-like parts (wings, clawed feet) and fish-like tail.[26]
In Euripides's play Helen (167), Helen in her anguish calls upon "Winged maidens, daughters of the Earth (Chthon)." Although they lured mariners, the Greeks portrayed the sirens in their "meadow starred with flowers" and not as sea deities. Epimenides claimed that the sirens were children of Oceanus and Ge.[33] Sirens are found in many Greek stories, notably in Homer's Odyssey.
Their names are variously rendered in the later sources as Thelxiepeia/Thelxiope/Thelxinoe, Molpe, Himerope, Aglaophonos/Aglaope/Aglaopheme, Pisinoe/Peisinoë/Peisithoe, Parthenope, Ligeia, Leucosia, Raidne, and Teles.[43][44][45][46]
Molpe (Μολπή)
Thelxiepeia (Θελξιέπεια) or Thelxiope (Θελξιόπη) "eye pleasing")
Comparative table of sirens' names, number and parentage
Relation
Names
Sources
Homer
Epimenides
Hesiod
Sophocles
(Sch. on) Apollonius
Lycophron
Strabo
Apollodorus
Hyginus
Servius
Eustathius
Suidas
Tzetzes
Vase painting
Euripides
Alex.
Tzet.
Brunte
Grant
Parentage
Oceanus and Gaea
✓
Chthon
✓
Achelous and Terpsichore
✓
✓
Achelous and Melpomene
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Achelous and Sterope
✓
Achelous and Calliope
✓
Phorcys
✓
Number
2
✓
✓
✓
✓
3
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
4
✓
Individual name
Thelxinoe or Thelxiope
✓
✓
✓
Thelxiepe
✓
✓
Thelxiep(e)ia
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Aglaophonus
✓
✓
Aglaope
✓
✓
Aglaopheme
✓
✓
Aglaonoe
✓
Molpe
✓
✓
✓
✓
Peisinoe or Pisinoe
✓
✓
✓
✓
Parthenope
✓
✓
✓
✓
Leucosia
✓
✓
✓
Raidne
✓
Teles
✓
Ligeia
✓
✓
✓
Himerope
✓
Mythology
Demeter
The Siren of Canosa, statuette exposing psychopomp characteristics, late fourth century BC
According to Ovid (43 BC–17 AD), the sirens were the companions of young Persephone.[47]Demeter gave them wings to search for Persephone when she was abducted by Hades. However, the Fabulae of Hyginus (64 BC–17 AD) has Demeter cursing the sirens for failing to intervene in the abduction of Persephone. According to Hyginus, sirens were fated to live only until the mortals who heard their songs could pass by them.[48]
The Muses
One legend says that Hera, queen of the gods, persuaded the Sirens to enter a singing contest with the Muses. The Muses won the competition and then plucked out all of the sirens' feathers and made crowns out of them.[49] Out of their anguish from losing the competition, writes Stephanus of Byzantium, the sirens turned white and fell into the sea at Aptera ("featherless"), where they formed the islands in the bay that were called Leukai ("the white ones", modern Souda).[50]
Argonautica
In the Argonautica (third century BC), Jason had been warned by Chiron that Orpheus would be necessary in his journey. When Orpheus heard their voices, he drew out his lyre and played his music more beautifully than they, drowning out their voices. One of the crew, however, the sharp-eared hero Butes, heard the song and leapt into the sea, but he was caught up and carried safely away by the goddess Aphrodite.[12]
Odyssey
Odysseus and the Sirens, eponymous vase of the Siren Painter, c. 475 BC
Odysseus was curious as to what the sirens sang to him, and so, on the advice of Circe, he had all of his sailors plug their ears with beeswax and tie him to the mast. He ordered his men to leave him tied tightly to the mast, no matter how much he might beg. When he heard their beautiful song, he ordered the sailors to untie him but they bound him tighter. When they had passed out of earshot, Odysseus demonstrated with his frowns to be released.[51] Some post-Homeric authors state that the sirens were fated to die if someone heard their singing and escaped them, and that after Odysseus passed by they therefore flung themselves into the water and perished.[52]
Pliny
The first-century Roman historian Pliny the Elder discounted sirens as a pure fable, "although Dinon, the father of Clearchus, a celebrated writer, asserts that they exist in India, and that they charm men by their song, and, having first lulled them to sleep, tear them to pieces."[53]
Statues of sirens in a funerary context are attested since the classical era, in mainland Greece, as well as Asia Minor and Magna Graecia. The so-called "Siren of Canosa"—Canosa di Puglia is a site in Apulia that was part of Magna Graecia—was said to accompany the dead among grave goods in a burial. She appeared to have some psychopomp characteristics, guiding the dead on the afterlife journey. The cast terracotta figure bears traces of its original white pigment. The woman bears the feet, wings and tail of a bird. The sculpture is conserved in the National Archaeological Museum of Spain, in Madrid.
The sirens were called the Muses of the lower world. Classical scholar Walter Copland Perry (1814–1911) observed: "Their song, though irresistibly sweet, was no less sad than sweet, and lapped both body and soul in a fatal lethargy, the forerunner of death and corruption."[54] Their song is continually calling on Persephone.
The term "siren song" refers to an appeal that is hard to resist but that, if heeded, will lead to a bad conclusion. Later writers have implied that the sirens ate humans, based on Circe's description of them "lolling there in their meadow, round them heaps of corpses rotting away, rags of skin shriveling on their bones."[55] As linguist Jane Ellen Harrison (1850–1928) notes of "The Ker as siren": "It is strange and beautiful that Homer should make the sirens appeal to the spirit, not to the flesh."[56] The siren song is a promise to Odysseus of mantic truths; with a false promise that he will live to tell them, they sing,
Once he hears to his heart's content, sails on, a wiser man. We know all the pains that the Greeks and Trojans once endured on the spreading plain of Troy when the gods willed it so— all that comes to pass on the fertile earth, we know it all![57]
"They are mantic creatures like the Sphinx with whom they have much in common, knowing both the past and the future", Harrison observed. "Their song takes effect at midday, in a windless calm. The end of that song is death."[58] That the sailors' flesh is rotting away, suggests it has not been eaten. It has been suggested that, with their feathers stolen, their divine nature kept them alive, but unable to provide food for their visitors, who starved to death by refusing to leave.[59]
Early Christian to Medieval
Book of Enoch
According to the ancient Hebrew Book of Enoch, the women who were led astray by the fallen angels will be turned into sirens.[60]
Late antiquity
By the fourth century, when pagan beliefs were overtaken by Christianity, the belief in literal sirens was discouraged[dubious – discuss]
The siren is allegorically described as a beautiful courtesan or prostitute, who sings pleasant melodies to men, and is the symbolic vice of Pleasure in the preaching of Clement of Alexandria (2nd century).[61] Later writers such as Ambrose (4th century) reiterated the notion that the siren stood as a symbol or allegory for worldly temptations.[62] and not an endorsement of the Greek myth.
Isidorus
The early Christian euhemerist interpretation of mythologized human beings received a long-lasting boost from the Etymologiae by Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636):
They [the Greeks] imagine that "there were three sirens, part virgins, part birds," with wings and claws. "One of them sang, another played the flute, the third the lyre. They drew sailors, decoyed by song, to shipwreck. According to the truth, however, they were prostitutes who led travelers down to poverty and were said to impose shipwreck on them." They had wings and claws because Love flies and wounds. They are said to have stayed in the waves because a wave created Venus.[63]
Physiologus and bestiaries
The allegorical texts
The siren and the onocentaur, two hybrid creatures, appear as the subject of a single chapter in the Physiologus,[64] as they appear together in the Septuagint translation of the aforementioned Isaiah 13:21–22, and 34:14.[65][d] They also appear together in some Latin bestiaries of the First Family subgroup called B-Isidore ("B-Is").[68][64]
The siren's bird-like description from classical sources was retained in the Latin version of the Physiologus (6th century) and several subsequent bestiaries into the 13th century,[73][67] but at some time during the interim, the mermaid shape was introduced to this body of works.[74]
The siren was illustrated as a woman-fish (mermaid) in the Bern Physiologus dated to the mid-9th century, even though this contradicted the accompanying text which described it as avian.[25] An English-made Latin bestiary dated 1220–1250 also depicted a group of sirens as mermaids with fishtails swimming in the sea, even though the text stated they resembled winged fowl (volatilis habet figuram) down to their feet.[80][e]
Illustrating the siren as a pure mermaid became commonplace in the "second family" bestiaries, and she was shown holding a musical instrument in the classical tradition, but also sometimes holding apparently an eel-fish.[82] An example of the siren-mermaid holding such a fish is found in one of the earlier codices in this group, dated the late 12th century.[f][71]
As bird-like
A counterexample is also given where the illustrated sirens (group of three) are bird-like, conforming to the text.[86]
As hybrid
The siren was sometimes drawn as a hybrid with a human torso, a fish-like lower body, and bird-like wings and feet.[87][88] While in the Harley 3244 (cf. fig. top right) the wings sprout from around the shoulders, in other hybrid types, the style places the siren's wings "hanging at the waist".[90][93]
Comb and mirror
Also, a siren may be holding a comb,[64][94] or a mirror.[96]
Thus the comb and mirror, which are now emblematic of mermaids across Europe, derive from the bestiaries that describe the siren as a vain creature requiring those accoutrements.[97][98]
Verse bestiaries
Later, bestiary texts appeared which were modified to accommodate the artistic conventions.[99]
There also appeared medieval works that conflated sirens with mermaids while citing Physiologus as their source.[104][105]
Italian poet Dante Alighieri depicts a siren in Canto 19 of Purgatorio, the second canticle of the Divine Comedy. Here, the pilgrim dreams of a female who is described as "stuttering, cross-eyed, and crooked on her feet, with stunted hands, and pallid in color."[106] It is not until the pilgrim "gazes" upon her that she is turned desirable and is revealed by herself to be a siren.[106] This siren then claims that she "turned Ulysses from his course, desirous of my / song, and whoever becomes used to me rarely / leaves me, so wholly do I satisfy him!"[106] Given that Dante did not have access to the Odyssey, the siren's claim that she turned Ulysses from his course is inherently false because the sirens in the Odyssey do not manage to turn Ulysses from his path.[107] Ulysses and his men were warned by Circe and prepared for their encounter by stuffing their ears full of wax,[107][108] except for Ulysses, who wishes to be bound to the ship's mast as he wants to hear the siren's song.[108] Scholars claim that Dante may have "misinterpreted" the siren's claim from an episode in Cicero's De finibus.[107] The pilgrim's dream comes to an end when a lady "holy and quick"[106] who had not yet been present before suddenly appears and says, "O Virgil, Virgil, who is this?"[106]Virgil, the pilgrim's guide, then steps forward and tears the clothes from the siren's belly which, "awakened me [the pilgrim] with the stench that issued from it."[106] This marks the ending of the encounter between the pilgrim and the siren.
By the time of the Renaissance, female court musicians known as courtesans filled the role of an unmarried companion, and musical performances by unmarried women could be seen as immoral. Seen as a creature who could control a man's reason, female singers became associated with the mythological figure of the siren, who usually took a half-human, half-animal form somewhere on the cusp between nature and culture.[110]
Leonardo da Vinci wrote of them in his notebooks, stating "The siren sings so sweetly that she lulls the mariners to sleep; then she climbs upon the ships and kills the sleeping mariners."
Age of Exploration
However, in the 17th century, some Jesuit writers began to assert their actual existence, including Cornelius a Lapide, who said of woman, "her glance is that of the fabled basilisk, her voice a siren's voice—with her voice she enchants, with her beauty she deprives of reason—voice and sight alike deal destruction and death."[111]Antonio de Lorea also argued for their existence, and Athanasius Kircher argued that compartments must have been built for them aboard Noah's Ark.[112]
Late Modernity (1801–1900)
Charles Burney expounded c. 1789, in A General History of Music: "The name, according to Bochart, who derives it from the Phoenician, implies a songstress. Hence it is probable, that in ancient times there may have been excellent singers, but of corrupt morals, on the coast of Sicily, who by seducing voyagers, gave rise to this fable."[113]
John Lemprière in his Classical Dictionary (1827) wrote, "Some suppose that the sirens were several lascivious women in Sicily, who prostituted themselves to strangers, and made them forget their pursuits while drowned in unlawful pleasures. The etymology of Bochart, who deduces the name from a Phoenician term denoting a songstress, favours the explanation given of the fable by Damm.[114] This distinguished critic makes the sirens to have been excellent singers, and divesting the fables respecting them of all their terrific features, he supposes that by the charms of music and song, they detained travellers, and made them altogether forgetful of their native land."[115]
Arts and influence
The French impressionist composer, Claude Debussy, composed the orchestral work Nocturnes in which the third movement, "Sirènes", depicts sirens. According to Debussy, "'Sirènes' depicts the sea and its countless rhythms and presently, amongst the waves silvered by the moonlight, is heard the mysterious song of the Sirens as they laugh and pass on".[116]
Contemporary British composer and former child prodigy, Alma Deutscher, composed "Waltz of the Sirens", an orchestral work based on the mythology creature.[118]
English artist William Etty portrayed the sirens as young women in fully human form in his 1837 painting The Sirens and Ulysses, a practice copied by future artists.[119]
^Argonautica 4.891ff. Seaton tr. (1912): "and at that time they were fashioned in part like birds and in part like maidens to behold"
^The headword is accusative plural (Commentary to the Sudas entry).
^The sirens (seirenes) do figure in the earliest surviving versions (version G, Μ Γ and others).[66] But the siren did not figure in the earlier Greek version of the Physiologos (4th century, preserved by Epiphanius) nor the Armenian translation from Greek originals.[67]
^There is another entry for "siren", as a winged white serpent of Arabia.[81]
^Mittman, Asa Simon; Dendle, Peter J (2016). The Ashgate research companion to monsters and the monstrous. London: Routledge. p. 352. ISBN9781351894326. OCLC1021205658.
^Rotroff, Susan I. (1982). Hellenistic Painted Potter: Athenian and Imported Moldmade Bowls, The Athenian Agora 22. American School of Classical Studies at Athens. p. 67, #190; Plates 35, 80. ISBN978-0876612224.
^Perry, "The sirens in ancient literature and art", in The Nineteenth Century, reprinted in Choice Literature: a monthly magazine (New York) 2 (September–December 1883:163).
^Ambrose, Exposition of the Christian Faith, Book 3, chap. 1, 4.
^Grant, Robert McQueen (1999). Early Christians and Animals. London: Routledge, 120. Translation of Isidore, Etymologiae (c. 600–636 AD), Book 11, chap. 3 ("Portents"), 30.
^Barber, Richard, ed. (1993). "Sirens". Bestiary: Being an English Version of the Bodleian Library, Oxford M.S. Bodley 764 : with All the Original Miniatures Reproduced in Facsimile. Boydell Press. p. 1150. ISBN9780851157535.
^Compare Nothumberland bestiary (Getty MS 100)[91] (olim Alnwick bestiary, Alnwick Castle MS 447). Comment of "webbed feet" in the two examples[64] seems false for the CUL ms., while "webbed feet of an aquatic animal" is corroborated for the Northumberland bestiary.[92]
^Or there may be three sirens drawn, two holding fish and third a mirror, as in Getty MS. 100 (olim Alnwick ms.)[91][64] A similar composition occurs on the Morgan M.81,[70] cf. fig. right.
^Schafer, Edward H. (September 1930). "The Physiologus of Bern: A Survival of Alexandrian Style in a Ninth Century". The Art Bulletin. 12 (3). Fig. 22 and p. 249. JSTOR3050780.
^"l'altre partie est figuree / Come peisson ou con oisel" (vv. 1058–1059).[100][101]
^Bartholomew Anglicus, De proprietatibus rerum XCVII, c.1240, "And Physiologus saith it is a beast of the sea, wonderly shapen as a maid from the navel upward and a fish from the navel downward"; quoted in translation by Mustard (1908), p. 22
^Hugh of St. Victor (d.1240), De bestiis et aliis rebus XCVII, quoted in Latin by Mustard (1908), p. 23, and in translation by Holford-Strevens (2006), p. 32: "sirens.., as the Physiologus describes them have a woman's form above down to the navel, but their lower part down to the feet has the shape of a fish". The work continues "excerpts from Servius and Isidore" to say: "three Sirens, part maids, part fish, of whom one sang,..etc.". But despite attribution to Hugh, this work had so heavily interpolated that it has been a 16th century compilation, and dubbed a "problematic" bestiary. Cf. Clark (2006), pp. 10–11: Chapter 1: The Problematic De bestiis et aliis rebus.
^Longworth, T. Clifton, and Paul Tice (2003). A Survey of Sex & Celibacy in Religion. San Diego: The Book Tree, 61. Originally published as The Devil a Monk Would Be: A Survey of Sex & Celibacy in Religion (1945).
^Carlson, Patricia Ann (ed.) (1986). Literature and Lore of the Sea. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi, 270.
^Austern, Linda Phyllis, and Inna Naroditskaya (eds.) (2006). Music of the Sirens. Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press, 72.
^Damm, perhaps Mythologie der Griechen und Römer (ed. Leveiow). Berlin, 1820.
Lemprière, John (1827) (6th ed.). A Classical Dictionary;.... New York: Evert Duyckinck, Collins & Co., Collins & Hannay, G. & C. Carvill, and O. A. Roorbach. as mentioned in the scriptures
Siegfried de Rachewiltz, De Sirenibus: An Inquiry into Sirens from Homer to Shakespeare, 1987: chs: "Some notes on posthomeric sirens; Christian sirens; Boccaccio's siren and her legacy; The Sirens' mirror; The siren as emblem the emblem as siren; Shakespeare's siren tears; brief survey of siren scholarship; the siren in folklore; bibliography"
"Siren's Lament", a story based around one writer's perception of sirens. Though most lore in the story does not match up with lore we associate with the wide onlook of sirens, it does contain useful information.
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Artykuł 52°21′1.9″N 18°52′32.9″E - błąd 4 m WD 52°21'N, 18°49'E, 52°21'3.38"N, 18°52'34.14"E - błąd 20254 m Odległość 656 m Żarowo wieś Państwo Polska Województwo wielkopolskie Powiat kolski Gmina Przedecz Liczba ludności 367 osób Strefa numeracyjna 63 Kod pocztowy 62-635[1] Tablice rejestracyjne PKL SIMC 0292451 Położenie na mapie gminy PrzedeczŻarowo Położenie na mapie PolskiŻarowo Położenie na mapie województwa ...
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Concept from Thelemic mysticism This article may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, potentially preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. Please help improve it by replacing them with more appropriate citations to reliable, independent, third-party sources. (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Part of a series onThelemaUnicursal hexagram Holy Book and Stele The Book of the Law The Stele of Revealing Key figures...
This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: Makadi Bay – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Aerial view of Makadi Bay View of a hotel resort at Makadi Bay Makadi Bay is a resort town in Egypt. It is located about 30 km (19 mi) south of Hurghada on the Red Sea. The...
Persic CilegonNama lengkapPersatuan Sepakbola Indonesia CilegonJulukanPasukan Kota BajaStadionStadion Krakatau Steel, Kota Cilegon, Banten(Kapasitas: 5.000)PemilikPemkot CilegonKetuaRobinsarPelatihMuhammad SaidLigaLiga 32019Babak Grup Kostum kandang Kostum tandang Persatuan Sepakbola Indonesia Cilegon (disingkat sebagai Persic Cilegon) adalah klub sepak bola Indonesia yang berasal dari Kota Cilegon, Provinsi Banten. Mereka berkompetisi di Liga 3 Banten.[1][2] Referensi ^ Ganti...
Machine that makes pellets A pellet mill, also known as a pellet press,[1] is a type of mill or machine press used to create pellets from powdered material. Pellet mills are unlike grinding mills, in that they combine small materials into a larger, homogeneous mass, rather than break large materials into smaller pieces. Types There are many types of pellet mills that can be generally grouped into large-scale and small-scale types. According to the production capacity, pellet mills als...
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Portuguese. (February 2011) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Portuguese article. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the Engli...
Former USAF facility in Victoria County, Texas For the civil use of this facility and airport information, see Victoria Regional Airport. Foster Air Force BaseFoster Field Part of Tactical Air CommandVictoria County, near Victoria, Texas 2006 USGS airphotoFoster AFBShow map of the United StatesFoster AFBShow map of TexasCoordinates28°51′09″N 96°55′07″W / 28.85250°N 96.91861°W / 28.85250; -96.91861TypeAir Force BaseSite historyBuilt1941; 82 year...
Results by ward Main article: Preston City Council elections The 2022 Preston City Council election took place on 5 May 2022 to elect members of Preston City Council.[1] happened on the same day as other local elections. Council elections for the Preston City Council were previously held in 2021 as part of the 2021 United Kingdom local elections. The council underwent a wholesale boundary revision in 2020, reducing the number of both Councillors and electoral wards, resulting in the ...
Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!
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