Minneapolis[a] is a city in and the county seat of Hennepin County, Minnesota, United States.[4] With a population of 429,954, it is the state's most populous city as of the 2020 census.[7] Located in the state's center near the eastern border, it occupies both banks of the Upper Mississippi River and adjoins Saint Paul, the state capital of Minnesota. Minneapolis, Saint Paul, and the surrounding area are collectively known as the Twin Cities, a metropolitan area with 3.69 million residents.[14] Minneapolis is built on an artesian aquifer on flat terrain and is known for cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers. Nicknamed the "City of Lakes",[15] Minneapolis is abundant in water, with thirteen lakes, wetlands, the Mississippi River, creeks, and waterfalls. The city's public park system is connected by the Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway.
Dakota people originally inhabited the site of today's Minneapolis. European colonization and settlement began north of Fort Snelling along Saint Anthony Falls—the only natural waterfall on the Mississippi River.[16] Location near the fort and the falls' power—with its potential for industrial activity—fostered the city's early growth. For a time in the 19th century, Minneapolis was the lumber and flour milling capital of the world, and as home to the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, it has preserved its financial clout into the 21st century. A Minneapolis Depression-era labor strike brought about federal worker protections. Work in Minneapolis contributed to the computing industry, and the city is the birthplace of General Mills, the Pillsbury brand, Target Corporation, and Thermo King mobile refrigeration.
Residents adhere to more than fifty religions. Despite its well-regarded quality of life,[17] Minneapolis has stark disparities among its residents—arguably the most critical issue confronting the city in the 21st century.[18] Governed by a mayor-council system, Minneapolis has a political landscape dominated by the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL), with Jacob Frey serving as mayor since 2018.
Two Indigenous nations inhabited the area now called Minneapolis.[19] Archaeologists have evidence that since 1000 A.D.,[20] they were the Dakota (one half of the Sioux nation),[21] and, after the 1700s,[22] the Ojibwe (also known as Chippewa, members of the Anishinaabe nations).[23] Dakota people have different stories to explain their creation.[24] One widely accepted story says the Dakota emerged from Bdóte,[24] the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers. Dakota are the only inhabitants of the Minneapolis area who claimed no other land;[25] they have no traditions of having immigrated.[26] In 1680, cleric Louis Hennepin, who was probably the first European to see the Minneapolis waterfall the Dakota people call Owámniyomni, renamed it the Falls of St. Anthony of Padua for his patron saint.[27]
In the space of sixty years, the US seized all of the Dakota land and forced them out of their homeland.[30] Purchasing most of modern-day Minneapolis, Zebulon Pike made the 1805 Treaty of St. Peter with the Dakota.[b] Pike bought a 9-square-mile (23 km2) strip of land—coinciding with the sacred place of Dakota origin[24]—on the Mississippi south of Saint Anthony Falls,[34] with the agreement the US would build a military fort and trading post there and the Dakota would retain their usufructuary rights.[35] In 1819, the US Army built Fort Snelling[36] to direct Native American trade away from British-Canadian traders and to deter war between the Dakota and Ojibwe in northern Minnesota.[37] Under pressure from US officials[38] in a series of treaties, the Dakota ceded their land first to the east and then to the west of the Mississippi, the river that runs through Minneapolis.[39][c] Dakota leaders twice refused to sign the next treaty until they were paid for the previous one.[51] In the decades following these treaty signings, the federal US government rarely honored their terms.[52] At the beginning of the American Civil War, annuity payments owed in June 1862 to the Dakota by treaty were late, causing acute hunger among the Dakota.[53][d] Facing starvation[55] a faction of the Dakota declared war in August and killed settlers.[56] Serving without any prior military experience, US commander Henry Sibley commanded raw recruits,[57] volunteer mounted troops from Minneapolis and Saint Paul with no military experience.[58] The war went on for six weeks in the Minnesota River valley.[59] After a kangaroo court,[60][e] 38 Dakota men were hanged.[59][f] The army force-marched 1,700 non-hostile Dakota men, women, children, and elders 150 miles (240 km) to a concentration camp at Fort Snelling.[28][77] Minneapolitans reportedly threatened more than once to attack the camp.[78] In 1863, the US "abrogated and annulled" all treaties with the Dakota.[79] With Governor Alexander Ramsey calling for their extermination,[80] most Dakota were exiled from Minnesota.[81]
While the Dakota were being expelled, Franklin Steele laid claim to the east bank of Saint Anthony Falls,[82] and John H. Stevens built a home on the west bank.[83] In the Dakota language, the city's name is Bde Óta Othúŋwe ('Many Lakes Town').[g] Residents had divergent ideas on names for their community. Charles Hoag proposed combining the Dakota word for 'water' (mni[h]) with the Greek word for 'city' (polis), yielding Minneapolis. In 1851, after a meeting of the Minnesota Territorial Legislature, leaders of east bank St. Anthony lost their bid to move the capital from Saint Paul, but they eventually won the state university.[90] In 1856, the territorial legislature authorized Minneapolis as a town on the Mississippi's west bank.[86] Minneapolis was incorporated as a city in 1867, and in 1872, it merged with St. Anthony.[91]
Minneapolis originated around a source of energy: Saint Anthony Falls, the only natural waterfall on the Mississippi.[16] Each of the city's two founding industries—flour and lumber milling—developed in the 19th century nearly concurrently, and each came to prominence for about fifty years.[j] In 1884, the value of Minneapolis flour milling was the world's highest.[96] In 1899, Minneapolis outsold every other lumber market in the world.[97] Through its expanding mill industries, Minneapolis earned the nickname "Mill City."[98] Due to the occupational hazards of milling, six companies manufactured artificial limbs.[99]
Disasters struck in the late 19th century: the Eastman tunnel under the river leaked in 1869; twice, fire destroyed the entire row of sawmills on the east bank;[100] an explosion of flour dust at the Washburn A mill killed eighteen people[101] and demolished about half the city's milling capacity;[102] and in 1893, fire spread from Nicollet Island to Boom Island to northeast Minneapolis, destroyed twenty blocks, and killed two people.[103]
The lumber industry was built around forests in northern Minnesota, largely by lumbermen emigrating from Maine's depleting forests.[104][105] The region's waterways were used to transport logs well after railroads developed; the Mississippi River carried logs to St. Louis until the early 20th century.[106] In 1871, of the thirteen mills sawing lumber in St. Anthony, eight ran on water power, and five ran on steam power.[107] Auxiliary businesses on the river's west bank included woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes, and wood-planing.[108] Minneapolis supplied the materials for farmsteads and settlement of rapidly expanding cities on the prairies that lacked wood.[109]White pine milled in Minneapolis built Miles City, Montana; Bismarck, North Dakota; Sioux Falls, South Dakota; Omaha, Nebraska; and Wichita, Kansas.[110] Growing use of steam power freed lumbermen and their sawmills from dependence on the falls.[111] Lumbering's decline began around the turn of the century,[112] and sawmills in the city including the Weyerhauser mill closed by 1919.[113] After depleting Minnesota's white pine,[114] some lumbermen moved on to Douglas fir in the Pacific Northwest.[115]
Columnist Don Morrison says that after the milling era waned a "modern, major city" emerged.[128] Around 1900, Minneapolis attracted skilled workers[129] who leveraged expertise from the University of Minnesota.[130] In 1923, Munsingwear was the world's largest manufacturer of underwear.[131]Frederick McKinley Jones invented mobile refrigeration in Minneapolis, and with his associate founded Thermo King in 1938.[132] In 1949, Medtronic was founded in a Minneapolis garage.[133]Minneapolis-Honeywell built a south Minneapolis campus where their experience regulating control systems earned them military contracts for the Norden bombsight and the C-1 autopilot.[134] In 1957, Control Data began in downtown Minneapolis,[135] where in the CDC 1604 computer they replaced vacuum tubes with transistors.[136] A highly successful business until disbanded in 1990, Control Data opened a facility in economically depressed north Minneapolis, bringing jobs and good publicity.[135] A University of Minnesota computing group released Gopher in 1991; three years later, the World Wide Web superseded Gopher traffic.[137]
In many ways, the 20th century in Minneapolis was a difficult time of bigotry and malfeasance, beginning with four decades of corruption.[139] Known initially as a kindly physician, mayor Doc Ames made his brother police chief, ran the city into crime, and tried to leave town in 1902.[140] The Ku Klux Klan was a force in the city from 1921[141] until 1923.[142] The gangster Kid Cann engaged in bribery and intimidation between the 1920s and the 1940s.[143] After Minnesota passed a eugenics law in 1925, the proprietors of Eitel Hospitalsterilized people at Faribault State Hospital.[144]
During the summer of 1934 and the financial downturn of the Great Depression, the Citizens' Alliance, an association of employers, refused to negotiate with teamsters. The truck drivers union executed strikes in May and July–August.[145]Charles Rumford Walker said that Minneapolis teamsters succeeded in part due to the "military precision of the strike machine".[146] The union victory ultimately led to 1935 and 1938 federal laws protecting workers' rights.[147]
From the end of World War I in 1918 until 1950, antisemitism was commonplace in Minneapolis—Carey McWilliams called the city the antisemitic capital of the US.[148] Starting in 1936, a fascist hate group known as the Silver Shirts held meetings in the city.[149] In the 1940s, mayor Hubert Humphrey worked to rescue the city's reputation[150] and helped the city establish the country's first municipal fair employment practices[151] and a human-relations council that interceded on behalf of minorities.[152] However, the lives of Black people had not been improved.[153] In 1966 and 1967—years of significant turmoil across the US—suppressed anger among the Black population was released in two disturbances on Plymouth Avenue.[154] Historian Iric Nathanson says young Blacks confronted police, arson caused property damage, and "random gunshots" caused minor injuries in what was a "relatively minor incident" in Minneapolis compared to the loss of life and property in similar incidents in Detroit and Newark.[155] A coalition reached a peaceful outcome but again failed to solve Black poverty and unemployment.[156] In the wake of unrest and voter backlash, Charles Stenvig, a law-and-order candidate, became mayor in 1969, and governed for almost a decade.[157][158]
Disparate events defined the second half of the 20th century. Between 1958 and 1963, Minneapolis demolished "skid row".[l] Gone were 35 acres (10 ha) with more than 200 buildings, or roughly 40 percent of downtown, including the Gateway District and its significant architecture such as the Metropolitan Building.[160] Opened in 1967, I-35W displaced Black and Mexican neighborhoods[161] in south Minneapolis.[162] In 1968, relocated Native Americans founded the American Indian Movement (AIM)[163] in Minneapolis. Begun as an alternative to public and Bureau of Indian Affairs schools, AIM's Heart of the Earth Survival School taught Native American traditions to children for nearly twenty years.[164] A same-sex Minneapolis couple appealed all the way to the US Supreme Court but their marriage license was denied.[165] They managed to get a license and marry in 1971,[165] forty years before Minnesota legalized same-sex marriage.[166] Immigration helped to curb the city's mid-20th century population decline. But because of a few radicalized persons, the city's large Somali population was targeted with discrimination after 9/11, when its hawalas or banks were closed.[167]
In 2020, 17-year-old Darnella Frazier recorded the murder of George Floyd;[168] Frazier's video contradicted the police department's initial statement.[169] Floyd, a Black man, suffocated when Derek Chauvin, a White Minneapolis police officer, knelt on his neck and back for more than nine minutes. Reporting on the local reaction, The New York Times said that "over three nights, a five-mile stretch of Minneapolis sustained extraordinary damage"[170]—destruction included a police station that demonstrators overran and set on fire.[171] Floyd's murder sparked international rebellions, mass protests,[172] and locally, years of ongoing unrest over racial injustice.[173][174] As of 2024, protest continued daily at the intersection where Floyd died, now known as George Floyd Square, with the slogan "No justice, no street".[174] Minneapolis gathered ideas for the square and through community engagement promised final proposals for the end of 2024, that could be implemented by 2026 or thereafter.[175] Protesters continued to ask for twenty-four reforms—many now met; a sticking point was ending qualified immunity for police.[174]
The history and economic growth of Minneapolis are linked to water, the city's defining physical characteristic. Long periods of glaciation and interglacial melt carved several riverbeds through what is now Minneapolis.[177] During the last glacial period, around 10,000 years ago, ice buried in these ancient river channels melted, resulting in basins that filled with water to become the lakes of Minneapolis.[178] Meltwater from Lake Agassiz fed the Glacial River Warren, which created a large waterfall that eroded upriver past the confluence of the Mississippi River, where it left a 75-foot (23-meter) drop in the Mississippi.[179] This site is located in what is now downtown Saint Paul. The new waterfall, later called Saint Anthony Falls, in turn, eroded up the Mississippi about eight miles (13 kilometers) to its present location, carving the Mississippi River gorge as it moved upstream. Minnehaha Falls also developed during this period via similar processes.[180][179]
Minneapolis is sited above an artesian aquifer[181] and on flat terrain. Its total area is 59 square miles (152.8 square kilometers) of which six percent is covered by water.[182] The city has a 12-mile (19 km) segment of the Mississippi River, four streams, and 17 waterbodies—13 of them lakes,[183] with 24 miles (39 km) of lake shoreline.[184]
A 1959 report by the US Soil Conservation Service listed Minneapolis's elevation above mean sea level as 830 feet (250 meters).[185] The city's lowest elevation of 687 feet (209 m) above sea level is near the confluence of Minnehaha Creek with the Mississippi River.[186] Sources disagree on the exact location and elevation of the city's highest point, which is cited as being between 967 and 985 feet (295 and 300 m) above sea level.[m]
Minneapolis has 83 neighborhoods and 70 neighborhood organizations.[189] In some cases, two or more neighborhoods act together under one organization.[190]
Around 1990, the city set up the Neighborhood Revitalization Program (NRP), in which every one of the city's eighty-some neighborhoods participated.[191] Funded for 20 years through 2011, with $400 million tax increment financing[191] ($542 million in 2023),[12] the program caught the eye of UN-Habitat, who considered it an example of best practices. Residents had a direct connection to government in NRP, whereby they proposed ideas appropriate for their area, and NRP reviewed the plans and provided implementation funds.[191][192] The city's Neighborhood and Community Relations department took NRP's place in 2011[193] and is funded only by city revenue. In 2019, the city released the Neighborhoods 2020 program, which reworked neighborhood funding with an equity-focused lens.[194] This reduced guaranteed funding, and several neighborhood organizations have since struggled with operations or merged with other neighborhoods due to decreased revenue.[195] Base funding for every neighborhood organization increased in the 2024 city budget.[196]
In 2018, the Minneapolis City Council approved the Minneapolis 2040 Comprehensive Plan, which resulted in a citywide end to single-family zoning.[197]Slate reported that Minneapolis was the first major city in the US to make citywide such a revision in housing possibilities.[198] At the time, 70 percent of residential land was zoned for detached, single-family homes,[199] though many of those areas had "nonconforming" buildings with more housing units.[200] City leaders sought to increase the supply of housing so more neighborhoods would be affordable and to decrease the effects single-family zoning had caused on racial disparities and segregation.[201] The Brookings Institution called it "a relatively rare example of success for the YIMBY agenda".[202] From 2022 until 2024,[203][204] the Minnesota Supreme Court, the US District Court, and the Minnesota Court of Appeals arrived at competing opinions, first shutting down the plan, and then securing its survival. Ultimately in 2024, the state legislature passed a bill approving the city's 2040 plan.[205]
Minneapolis experiences a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification)[206] that is typical of southern parts of the Upper Midwest; it is situated in USDA plant hardiness zone 5a.[207][208][209] The Minneapolis area experiences a full range of precipitation and related weather events, including snow, sleet, ice, rain, thunderstorms, and fog. The highest recorded temperature is 108 °F (42 °C) in July 1936 while the lowest is −41 °F (−41 °C) in January 1888.[210] The snowiest winter on record was 1983–1984, when 98.6 in (250 cm) of snow fell.[211] The least-snowy winter was 1930–1931, when 14.2 inches (36 cm) fell.[211] According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the annual average for sunshine duration is 58 percent.[212]
Mexican migrant workers began coming to Minnesota as early as 1860, although few stayed year-round.[224]Latinos eventually settled in several neighborhoods in Minneapolis, including Phillips, Whittier, Longfellow and Northeast.[225] Before the turn of the 21st century, Latinos were the state's largest and fastest-growing immigrant group.[224][226]
Chinese began immigration in the 1870s and Chinese businesses centered on the Gateway District and Glenwood Avenue.[236]Westminster Presbyterian Church gave language classes and support for Chinese Americans in Minneapolis, many of whom had fled discrimination in western states.[237]Japanese Americans, many relocated from San Francisco, worked at Camp Savage, a secret military Japanese-language school that trained interpreters and translators.[238] Following World War II, some Japanese and Japanese Americans remained in Minneapolis, and by 1970, they numbered nearly 2,000, forming part of the state's largest Asian American community.[239] In the 1950s, the US government relocated Native Americans to cities like Minneapolis, attempting to dismantle Indian reservations.[240] Around 1970, Koreans arrived,[241] and the first Filipinos came to attend the University of Minnesota.[242]Vietnamese, Hmong (some from Thailand), Lao, and Cambodians settled mainly in Saint Paul around 1975, but some built organizations in Minneapolis.[243][244] In 1992, 160 Tibetan immigrants came to Minnesota, and many settled in the city's Whittier neighborhood.[245]Burmese immigrants arrived in the early 2000s, with some moving to Greater Minnesota.[246] The population of people from India in Minneapolis increased by 1,000 between 2000 and 2010, making it the largest concentration of Indians living in the state.[247]
The population of Minneapolis grew until 1950 when the census peaked at 521,718—the only time it has exceeded a half million. The population then declined for decades; after World War II, people moved to the suburbs and generally out of the Midwest.[248]
By 1930, Minneapolis had one of the nation's highest literacy rates among Black residents.[249][250][251] However, discrimination prevented them from obtaining higher-paying jobs.[252] In 1935, Cecil Newman and the Minneapolis Spokesman led a year-long consumer boycott of four area breweries that refused to hire Blacks.[253] Employment improved during World War II, but housing discrimination persisted.[254] Between 1950 and 1970, the Black population in Minneapolis increased by 436 percent.[253] After the Rust Belt economy declined in the 1980s, Black migrants were attracted to Minneapolis for its job opportunities, good schools, and safe neighborhoods.[255] In the 1990s, immigrants from the Horn of Africa began to arrive,[256] from Eritrea, Ethiopia, and particularly Somalia.[257] Immigration from Somalia slowed significantly following a 2017 national executive order.[258] As of 2022, about 3,000 Ethiopians and 20,000 Somalis reside in Minneapolis.[259]
The Williams Institute reported that the Twin Cities had an estimated 4.2-percent LGBT adult population in 2020.[260] In 2023, the Human Rights Campaign gave Minneapolis 94 points out of 100 on the Municipal Equality Index of support for the LGBTQ+ population.[261]Twin Cities Pride is held in May.[262]
Census and estimates
Minneapolis is the largest city in Minnesota and the 46th-largest city in the United States by population as of 2023.[263][264] According to the 2020 US Census, Minneapolis had a population of 429,954.[265] Of this population, 44,513 (10.4 percent) identified as Hispanic or Latinos.[266] Of those not Hispanic or Latino, 249,581 persons (58.0 percent) were White alone (62.7 percent White alone or in combination), 81,088 (18.9 percent) were Black or African American alone (21.3 percent Black alone or in combination), 24,929 (5.8 percent) were Asian alone, 7,433 (1.2 percent) were American Indian and Alaska Native alone, 25,387 (0.6 percent) some other race alone, and 34,463 (5.2 percent) were multiracial.[265]
The most common ancestries in Minneapolis according to the 2021 American Community Survey (ACS) were German (22.9 percent), Irish (10.8 percent), Norwegian (8.9 percent), Subsaharan African (6.7 percent), and Swedish (6.1 percent).[267] Among those five years and older, 81.2 percent spoke only English at home, while 7.1 percent spoke Spanish and 11.7 percent spoke other languages, including large numbers of Somali and Hmong speakers.[267] About 13.7 percent of the population was born abroad, with 53.2 percent of them being naturalizedUS citizens. Most immigrants arrived from Africa (40.6 percent), Latin America (25.2 percent), and Asia (24.6 percent), with 34.6 percent of all foreign-born residents having arrived in 2010 or earlier.[267]
Comparable to the US average of $70,784 in 2021,[268] the ACS reported that the 2021 median household income in Minneapolis was $69,397 ($78,030 in 2023),[12] It was $97,670 for families, $123,693 for married couples, and $54,083 for non-family households.[269][270] In 2023, the median Minneapolis rent was $1,529, compared to the national median of $1,723.[271] Over 92 percent of housing units in Minneapolis were occupied.[272] Housing units in the city built in 1939 or earlier comprised 43.7 percent.[272] Almost 17 percent of residents lived in poverty in 2023, compared to the US average of 11.1 percent.[273] As of 2022, 90.8 percent of residents age 25 years or older had earned a high school degree compared to 89.1 percent nationally, and 53.5 percent had a bachelor's degree or higher compared to the 34.3 percent US national average.[273] US veterans made up 2.8 percent of the population compared to the national average of 5 percent in 2023.[273]
In Minneapolis in 2020, Blacks owned homes at a rate one-third that of White families.[274] Statewide by 2022, the gap between White and Black home ownership declined from 51.5 percent to 48 percent.[275] Statewide, alongside this small improvement was a sharp increase in the Black-to-White comparative number of deaths of despair (e.g., alcohol, drugs, and suicide).[275] The Minneapolis income gap in 2018 was one of the largest in the country, with Black families earning about 44 percent of what White families earned annually.[274] Statewide in 2022 using inflation-adjusted dollars, the median income for a Black family was $34,377 less than a White family's median income, an improvement of $7,000 since 2019.[275]
Before 1910,[153] when a developer wrote the first restrictive covenant based on race and ethnicity into a Minneapolis deed,[280] the city was relatively unsegregated with a Black population of less than one percent.[281] Realtors adopted the practice, thousands of times preventing non-Whites from owning or leasing properties;[282] this practice continued for four decades until the city became more and more racially divided.[283] Though such language was prohibited by state law in 1953 and by the federal Fair Housing Act of 1968,[284] restrictive covenants against minorities remained in many Minneapolis deeds as of the 2020s. In 2021, the city gave residents a means to discharge them.[285]
Minneapolis has a history of structural racism[286] and has racial disparities in nearly every aspect of society.[287] As White settlers displaced the Indigenous population during the 19th century, they claimed the city's land,[288] and Kirsten Delegard of Mapping Prejudice explains that today's disparities evolved from control of the land.[153] Discrimination increased when flour milling moved to the East Coast and the economy declined.[289]
The foundation laid by racial covenants on residential segregation, property value, homeownership, wealth, housing security, access to green spaces, and health equity shapes the lives of people in the 21st century.[290] The city wrote in a decennial plan that racially discriminatory federal housing policies starting in the 1930s "prevented access to mortgages in areas with Jews, African-Americans and other minorities" and "left a lasting effect on the physical characteristics of the city and the financial well-being of its residents".[291]
Discussing a Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis report on how systemic racism compromises education in Minnesota,[292] Professor Keith Mayes says, "So the housing disparities created the educational disparities that we still live with today."[293] Professor Samuel Myers Jr. says of redlining, "Policing policies evolved that substituted explicit racial profiling with scientific management of racially disparate arrests. ... racially discriminatory policies became institutionalized and 'baked in' to the fabric of Minnesota life."[294][p] Government efforts to address these disparities included declaring racism a public health emergency in 2020[296] and passing zoning changes in the 2018 Minneapolis city council 2040 plan.[297]
Aligning with a national trend, the metro area's next largest group after Christians is the 23-percent non-religious population.[299] At the same time, more than 50 denominations and religions are present in Minneapolis, representing most of the world's religions.[300]Temple Israel was built in 1928 by the city's first Jewish congregation, Shaarai Tov, which formed in 1878.[231] By 1959, a Temple of Islam was located in north Minneapolis.[307] In 1971, a reported 150 persons attended classes at a Hindu temple near the University of Minnesota.[307] In 1972, the Twin Cities' first Shi'a Muslim family resettled from Uganda.[308] Somalis who live in Minneapolis are primarily Sunni Muslim.[309] In 2022, Minneapolis amended its noise ordinance to allow broadcasting the Muslim call to prayer five times per day.[310] The city has about seven Buddhist centers and meditation centers.[311]
Early in the city's history, millers were required to pay for wheat with cash during the growing season and then to store the wheat until it was needed for flour.[314] The Minneapolis Grain Exchange was founded in 1881; located near the riverfront, it is the only exchange as of 2023 for hard red spring wheat futures.[315]
Minneapolis area employment is primarily in trade, transportation, utilities, education, health services, and professional and business services. Smaller numbers of residents are employed in government, manufacturing, leisure and hospitality, and financial activities.[318]
The Minneapolis Institute of Art (Mia) is located in south-central Minneapolis on the 10-acre (4 ha) former homestead of the Morrison family.[324]McKim, Mead & White designed a vast complex meeting the ambitions of the founders for a cultural center with spaces for sculpture, an art school, and orchestra. One-seventh of their design was built and opened in 1915. Additions by other firms from 1928 to 2006 achieved much of the original scheme.[325] Today the collection of more than 90,000 artworks spans six continents and about 5,000 years.[326]
Minneapolis has hosted theatrical performances since the end of the American Civil War.[333] Early theaters included Pence Opera House, the Academy of Music, Grand Opera House, Lyceum, and later the Metropolitan Opera House, which opened in 1894.[334] Fifteen of the fifty-five Twin Cities theater companies counted in 2015 by Peg Guilfoyle had a physical site in Minneapolis. About half the remainder performed in variable spaces throughout the metropolitan area.[335]
In his social history of American regional theater, Joseph Zeigler calls the Guthrie Theater the "granddaddy" of regional theater.[336]Tyrone Guthrie founded the Guthrie in 1963 with an inventive thrust stage—a collaboration by Guthrie, designer Tanya Moiseiwitsch, and architect Ralph Rapson[337]—jutting into the seats and surrounded by the audience on three sides.[338] French architect Jean Nouvel designed a new Guthrie that opened in 2006 overlooking the Mississippi River.[338] The design team reproduced the thrust stage with some alterations, and they added a proscenium stage and an experimental stage.[338]
Exhibits at Mill City Museum feature the city's history of flour milling.[361]The Bakken, formerly known as the Bakken Library and Museum of Electricity in Life,[362] shifted focus in 2016 from electricity and magnetism to invention and innovation, and in 2020 opened a new entrance on Bde Maka Ska.[363]Hennepin History Museum is housed in a former mansion.[364] Built of elaborate woodwork in 1875 and maintained today as a historic site, the little Minnehaha Depot was a stop on one of the first railroads built out of Minneapolis.[365]
After the flight to the suburbs began in the 1950s, streetcar service ended citywide.[379]
One of the largest urban food deserts in the US developed on the north side of Minneapolis, where as of mid-2017, 70,000 people had access to only two grocery stores.[380] When Aldi closed in 2023, the area again became a food desert with two full-service grocers.[381] The nonprofit Appetite for Change sought to improve the diet of residents, competing against an influx of fast-food stores,[382] and by 2017 it administered ten gardens, sold produce in the mid-year months at West Broadway Farmers Market, supplied its restaurants, and gave away boxes of fresh produce.[383] Appetite for Change closed its Minneapolis restaurant in 2023, opened a food truck, and received a grant from the Minnesota legislature to create a long-term home.[384] West Broadway is one of twenty farmers markets and mini-markets operating in the city, and among them, four are open during winter.[385]
Conceived in Minneapolis as a malted milkshake in candy form, the Milky Way bar of nougat, caramel, and chocolate was made in the North Loop neighborhood during the 1920s.[391] Both purported originators of the Jucy Lucy burger—the 5-8 Club and Matt's Bar—have served it since the 1950s.[392]East African cuisine arrived in Minneapolis with the wave of migrants from Somalia that started in the 1990s.[393] The Herbivorous Butcher, described by CBS News as the "first vegan 'butcher' shop in the United States", opened in 2016.[394]
The 1,700,000-square-foot (160,000 m2) U.S. Bank Stadium was built for the Vikings at a cost of $1.122 billion ($1.49 billion in 2023);[12] of this, the state of Minnesota provided $348million ($462 million in 2023),[12] and the city of Minneapolis spent $150million ($199 million in 2023).[12] The stadium, which MPR News called "Minnesota's biggest-ever public works project", opened in 2016 with 66,000 seats, which was expanded to 70,000 for the 2018 Super Bowl.[407] U.S. Bank Stadium also hosts indoor running and rollerblading nights.[408] Minneapolis has two municipal golf courses[409] and one private course.[410] Each January, the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships are held on Lake Nokomis.[411] The Twin Cities Marathon held in October is a Boston Marathon qualifier.[412] The final weekend of the 2024 pond hockey championships was canceled due to above average temperatures,[413] as was the 2023 marathon.[414]
Landscape architect Horace Cleveland's masterpiece is the Minneapolis park system.[415] In the 1880s, he preserved geographical landmarks and linked them with boulevards and parkways.[416] In their introduction to a modern reprint of Cleveland's treatise on landscape architecture, professors Daniel Nadenicek and Lance Neckar add that "Cleveland was successful in Minneapolis in great measure because he operated with kindred spirits" like William Watts Folwell and Charles M. Loring.[417] In his book The American City: What Works, What Doesn't, Alexander Garvin wrote Minneapolis built "the best-located, best-financed, best-designed, and best-maintained public open space in America".[418]
Cleveland lobbied for a park on the riverfront to include the city's other waterfall.[419] In 1889, George A. Brackett arranged financing, and his associate Henry Brown paid the state to cover the condemnation of surrounding land.[420]Minnehaha Park, containing the 53-foot (16 m) waterfall Minnehaha Falls, is one of Minnesota's first state parks.[421] The falls became what historian Mary Lethert Wingerd calls a "civic emblem" that appears on products and in placenames.[422]
The city's parks are governed and operated by the independent Minneapolis Park and Recreation Boardpark district.[423] Beyond its network of 185 neighborhood parks,[424] the park board owns the city's street trees.[425][r] The board owns nearly all land that borders the city's waterfronts—thus the public owns the city's lakeshore property.[427] The park board owns land outside the city limits including its largest park, Theodore Wirth Park—sitting west of downtown Minneapolis and partly in Golden Valley—which incorporates the Eloise Butler Wildflower Garden and Bird Sanctuary.[428]
Canoeing on the Mississippi
As of 2020, approximately 15 percent of land in Minneapolis is parks, in accordance with the national median, and 98 percent of residents live within one-half mile (0.8 km) of a park.[429] The city's Chain of Lakes extends through five lakes in southwest Minneapolis.[430] The chain is connected by bicycle, running, and walking paths and is used for swimming, fishing, picnics, boating, ice skating, and other activities. A parkway for cars, a bikeway for riders, and a walkway for pedestrians[431] run parallel along the 51-mile (82 km) route of the Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway.[432] Parks are interlinked in many places, and the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area connects regional parks and visitor centers.[433] Among walks and hikes running along the Mississippi River, the five-mile (8 km), hiking-only Winchell Trail offers views of and access to the Mississippi Gorge and a rustic hiking experience.[434] The Minneapolis Aquatennial, a civic celebration of the "City of Lakes", is held each July.[435]
The Minneapolis City Council has 13 members who represent the city's 13 wards.[445] In 2021, a ballot question shifted more weight from the city council to the mayor; proponents had tried to achieve this change since the early 20th century.[446] The mayor and city council now share responsibility for the city's finances.[447] The city's primary source of funding is property tax.[448] A sales tax of 9.03 percent[449] on purchases made within the city is a combination of the city sales tax of 0.50 percent, along with county, state, and special district taxes.[450][451] The Park and Recreation Board is an independent city department with nine elected commissioners who levy their own taxes, subject to city charter limits.[423] The Board of Estimation and Taxation, which oversees city levies, is also an independent department.[452]
The mayoral reform ballot measure led to four direct reports to the mayor—two officers, the city attorney, and the chief of staff—and the creation of two new offices.[453] The Office of Public Service is led by the city operations officer. The Minneapolis departments of civil rights and public works report to the office which oversees communications and engagement; development, health, and livability; and internal operations. The Office of Community Safety has a single commissioner responsible for overseeing the police and fire departments, 911 dispatch, emergency management, and violence prevention;[454] within this office, four emergency response units serve the city: Behavioral Crisis Response (BCR), fire, emergency medical services, and police.[455] Canopy Mental Health & Consulting, also known as Canopy Roots, operates BCR free of charge[455] to respond to crises and some 911 calls that do not require police.[456]
Police guard the third precinct the day before it was burned down during the George Floyd protests.
After the murder of George Floyd in 2020, about 166 police officers left of their own accord either to retirement or to temporary leave—many with PTSD[457]—and a crime wave resulted in more than 500 shootings.[458] A Reuters investigation found that killings surged when a "hands-off" attitude resulted in fewer officer-initiated encounters.[459] After Floyd's murder, chiefs reprimanded a dozen officers for misconduct,[460] and as of early 2024, the city had paid out $50million for police conduct claims.[461] In 2024 came approval of an independent monitor of a court-enforceable consent decree, an agreement negotiated with the Minnesota Department of Human Rights and the United States Department of Justice to compel reformed policing practices.[462]
Violent crime rose three percent across Minneapolis in July 2022 compared with 2021,[463] and in 2020, it rose 21 percent compared to the average of the previous five years.[464] Violent crime was down for 2022 in every category except assaults. Carjackings, gunshots fired, gunshot wounds, and robberies decreased, and homicides were down 20 percent compared to the previous year.[465]
In 2015, the city council passed a resolution making fossil fuel divestment city policy,[466] joining 17 cities worldwide in the Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance. Minneapolis's climate plan calls for an 80-percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.[467] In 2021, the city council voted unanimously to abolish its required minimum number of parking spaces for new construction.[468] Minneapolis has a separation ordinance that directs local law-enforcement officers not to "take any law enforcement action" for the sole purpose of finding undocumented immigrants, nor to ask an individual about his or her immigration status.[469]
Education
Primary and secondary
In 1834, volunteer missionaries Gideon and Samuel Pond[470] sought permission for their work from the US Indian agency at Fort Snelling.[471] They taught new farming techniques and their Christian religion to Chief Cloud Man and his community on the east shore of Bde Maka Ska.[300] That year, J. D. Stevens and the Ponds built an Indian mission near Lake Harriet, which was the first educational institution in the Minneapolis area.[300] In the treaty of 1837, the US promised payment to the Dakota, but instead gave the monies to the missionaries earmarked for education, and in protest, fewer than ten Dakota students attended.[472] After more settlers moved to the area, ten school buildings served nearly 4,000 students by 1874. The district had more than one hundred schools when enrollment peaked at 90,000 students in 1933.[473]
Dual language science outreach at Emerson, one of nine[474] magnet elementary schools
Minneapolis Public Schools has room for 45,000 students and enrolled about 28,500 K–12 students as of 2024,[475] in more than fifty schools, divided between community and magnet.[476] As of 2023, enrollment was declining about 1.5 percent per year, and approximately 60 percent of school age children attended district schools.[477] Enrollment was declining because charter schools and open enrollment, the reasons for one-fifth of the decline, became more popular, and the number of children living in the city fell since 2020.[478] Many students enrolled in alternatives such as charter schools, of which the city had 28 as of 2024.[479] By state law, charter schools are open to all students and are tuition-free.[480] In 2022, about 1200 at-risk students attended district alternative schools that offered them better outcomes than traditional schools.[481] For the 2022–2023 school year, 368 students were homeschooled in Minneapolis.[482]
School district demographics were 41 percent White students, 35 percent Black, 14 percent Hispanic, and 5 percent each were Asian and Native American.[483]English-language learners were about 17 percent[483] in a district that spoke 100 languages at home.[484] About 15 percent were special education students.[483] As of fall 2023, every public school student in the state receives one free breakfast and one free lunch each school day.[485] In 2022, the district's graduation rate was 77 percent, an improvement of 3 percent over the previous year.[486]
Headquartered in Minneapolis, the University of Minnesota Twin Cities campus enrolled more than 54,000 students in 2023–2024.[487] College rankings in 2024 place the school in the range of 44th[488] to 203rd for academics worldwide.[489][490]QS found a decline in rank over a decade.[490]Shanghai found excellence in ecology and library and information science.[488] Among the 2,250 schools U.S. News & World Report compared in its 2024–2025 best global universities rankings, the University of Minnesota tied with Emory University at 63rd.[491] The school has unusual autonomy that has existed in Minnesota since 1858, when the state constitution included the provision that regents are in control, independent of city government.[492] Founded in 1851[490] and closed in its first decade for lack of funding, the University of Minnesota was revived under the Morrill Act of 1862 using land taken from the Dakota people.[493][s]
In 2023, Nielsen found the Minneapolis–Saint Paul area to be the 15th-largest designated market area which is down from 14th in 2022.[528] Of the 89 FM and 57 AM stations that can be heard in the city, 17 FM stations and 11 AM stations are licensed in Minneapolis.[529] The Twin Cities have 1,742,530 TV homes.[530]TV Guide lists 151 TV channels for Minneapolis.[531]
For all trips by all members of a household in 2019, Metropolitan Council data showed that the most common means of transportation was driving alone (40 percent), the least common was bicycling (3 percent), and others were carpooling (28 percent), walking (16 percent), and public transit (13 percent). The city's goal is that by 2030, 60 percent of trips are taken without a car, or 35 percent by walking and biking and 25 percent by transit. The city aims to reduce vehicle miles traveled by 1.8 percent per year.[532]
A division of the Metropolitan Council, Metro Transit operates public transportation in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area.[533] As of 2023, the system has two light rail lines, five bus rapid transit (BRT) lines, and one commuter rail line.[534] A fleet of 736 buses serves 10,745 bus stops.[534] As of 2021, riders of Metro Transit system-wide were 55 percent persons of color.[534] The system provided nearly 45 million rides in 2023, a sixteen-percent increase over the previous year.[535] In 2023, bus service had returned to 90 percent of its ridership before the COVID-19 pandemic.[535]
The Metro Blue Line light rail line connects the Mall of America and Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport in Bloomington to downtown,[536] and the Green Line travels from downtown through the University of Minnesota campus to downtown Saint Paul.[537] A Blue Line extension to the northwest suburbs is scheduled to be built and completed by 2030.[538] A Green Line extension is planned to connect downtown with the southwestern suburbs.[t] BRT lines are 25 percent faster than regular bus lines because riders pay before boarding, stops are limited, and sometimes they employ signal prioritization.[540] The newest BRT line, the D Line, runs along one of Minnesota's most used bus lines, the 18-mile (29 km) route5, where a quarter of households do not have access to a car.[540] The 40-mile (64 km) Northstar Commuter rail runs from Big Lake, Minnesota, to downtown Minneapolis. Commuter rides decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic, and as of 2023, service cut back to four from twelve daily trips.[541]
A cyclist in winter
Hundreds of homeless people nightly sought shelter on Green Line trains until overnight service was cut back in 2019.[542] Short more than a hundred police officers, in 2022, the Metro Council hired community groups to help police light rail stations; these non-profits can guide passengers to mental health services and shelters.[543] In partnership with a private security company in 2024, Metro Transit improved security and safety with 24 trip agents who ride the light rail lines each day and work with transit police and community officers.[544]
In 2007, the Interstate 35W bridge over the Mississippi, which was overloaded with 300 short tons (270,000 kg) of repair materials, collapsed, killing 13 people and injuring 145. The bridge was rebuilt in 14 months.[545]
Evie Carshare, owned by Minneapolis and Saint Paul since 2022, is a fleet of 145 electric cars available for one-way trips in a 35-square-mile (91 km2) area of the Twin Cities.[546] In warm weather, Lime and Veo have shared electric bikes and scooters for rent at sixty mobility hubs located on transit lines; riders may end their trip anywhere in the city.[547]
Xcel Energy supplies electricity,[555] and CenterPoint Energy provides gas.[555] The water supply is managed by four watershed districts that correspond with the Mississippi and three streams that are river tributaries.[556]
The city has nineteen fire stations.[557] Requests for non-emergency information or service requests can be made through Minneapolis 311. The call center operates in English, Spanish, Hmong, and Somali, and offers 220 language options.[558] Email, TTY, text, voice, and a mobile app can access the center.[559]
The Minneapolis department of public works is responsible for services including snow plowing, solid waste removal, traffic and parking, water treatment, transportation planning and maintenance, and fleet services for the city.[560] Among its engineering functions, the department was increasing the capacity of a 4,200-foot (1,300 m) storm water tunnel system 80 feet (24 m) under Washington to Chicago avenues and had completed 97 percent of the excavation phase and 41 percent of the lining phase as of August 2023.[561] Designed for downtown's concrete landscape, the system will drain runoff into the Mississippi in case of a 100-year storm.[562]
Downtown Improvement District ambassadors, who are identified by their blue-and-green-yellow fluorescent jackets, daily patrol a 120-block area of downtown to greet and assist visitors, remove trash, monitor property, and call police when they are needed. The ambassador program is a public-private partnership that is paid for by a special downtown tax district.[563]
In 2022, opioid overdoses killed 231 persons in Minneapolis.[572] For the state in 2021, Black persons were three times and Native American persons were ten times more likely to die from an opioid overdose than White persons.[573][u] The 2024 city budget added funds for the Turning Point treatment center, which provides care specifically for African Americans.[196] The Red Lake Band of Chippewa is building a culturally sensitive treatment center for opioid and fentanyl addiction. Minneapolis transferred two city-owned properties to the Red Lake Nation for the facility.[575][576]
The Mashkiki Waakaa'igan Pharmacy—funded by the Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa—dispenses free prescription drugs and culturally sensitive care to members of any federally recognized tribes living in Hennepin and Ramsey counties, regardless of insurance status.[577]
^Because President Thomas Jefferson had not authorized Pike's trip, which was made at the behest of James Wilkinson, the new governor of the Louisiana territory, Pike did not have the authority to make a treaty.[31] Pike valued the land at $200,000 ($4.07 million in 2023)[12] in his journal but omitted the value in Article 2 of the treaty. Pike gave the chiefs 60 US gallons (230 L) of liquor and $200 ($4,069 in 2023)[12] in gifts at the signing.[32] In 1808, the US Senate authorized one hundredth of Pike's estimate and added acreage,[32] paying $2,000 ($40,693 in 2023)[12] for the land in 1819.[33]
^In the 1851 Treaty of Traverse des Sioux and Treaty of Mendota, the US took all Dakota land west of the Mississippi,[40] about 24 million acres (97,000 km2),[41] in exchange for a 10-mile (16 km) wide reservation on the Minnesota River[42] and about $3 million ($110 million in 2023).[12] After expenses, the Dakota were promised fifty years of annuities in goods[43] and interest on $1,360,000 ($49.8 million in 2023) and $1,410,000 ($51.6 million in 2023);[12] the US kept the principal.[44] The Dakota could not read English, and their interpreters worked for the US.[39] In Mendota, negotiator Wakute said he feared signing a treaty because the prior treaty was changed from the one he had signed.[45] Indeed, the US Congress ratified amendments after the fact, and refused to consider payment unless the Dakota agreed to their new terms—in 1852 Congress struck the reservation from the final treaty.[46] Negotiators Luke Lea and Alexander Ramsey had promised the Dakota they would prosper, and they rushed the transaction.[47] The chiefs were asked to sign a third paper in 1851—onlookers assumed it was a third copy of the treaty[48]—that Ramsey later declared was a "solemn acknowledgment" of the Dakota's debt to traders.[49] Ramsey, as territorial governor, enforced the trader's paper, distributing the monies to himself, Henry Sibley, and their friends.[50]
^Part of the delay was a month's indecision in the US Treasury about appropriating gold or greenbacks and in Congress, which was preoccupied with Civil War finance. Gold arrived in the region just a few hours after settlers had been killed and war had begun.[54]
^General[61]Henry Sibley rushed to complete the trials before winter.[62] Trials were held from late September[63] through early November 1862, in central Minnesota west of Minneapolis;[62] on each day up to forty-three men stood trial.[62] The Dakota men were without counsel, rarely spoke English, in some cases trials proceeded without witnesses, and no time was made for cross-examination.[64] Historian Gary Clayton Anderson says, "In 90 percent of the trials, the entire event lasted only a minute or two...".[64]
^Sibley appointed a commission of men thought later to be biased to hear the trials and planned to carry out executions immediately.[65] Of 400 Dakota, 303 were sentenced to death, 20 were sentenced to prison, 69 were acquitted, and 8 were released.[66] When his superior Major General John Pope reported the commission's findings to President Abraham Lincoln he had realized only the president can authorize executions. Historian Mary Lethert Wingerd writes that Lincoln and members of his cabinet were "taken aback" by the number of condemned and the irregular proceedings.[67] Lincoln then ordered a stay of execution until he could review the trial transcripts.[67] Minnesotans wanted revenge and many were outraged at the stay.[68] Lincoln was under pressure from Minnesotans,[69] and wrote that he wished to avoid cruelty and to discourage another outbreak.[70] He first decided that only rapists would be hanged, but only 2 Dakota met that condition. Then with the help of his lawyers,[71] Wingerd writes that Lincoln "reluctantly"[69] ordered that 39 men[72] would be hanged; these men had been convicted of murdering civilians. One received a last minute reprieve.[70] Minnesotans participated in lynch mobs and vigilantism against the Dakota, both condemned and friendly—2 men died of injuries sustained during attacks on Sibley's wagon train that took them to Mankato. Command transferred to Colonel Stephen Miller who oversaw the executions—he declared martial law and banned alcohol for the 4,000 spectators.[73] The Dakota were reportedly cheerful as they walked to their deaths; a journalist wrote, "No equal number ever approached the gallows with greater courage, and more perfect determination to prove how little death can be feared".[74] After what was the largest mass execution in US history,[75][74] Minnesota officials discovered that in their haste, they had hanged 2 innocent men.[70] Nearly all the men's bodies were dug up from their graves within 24 hours, some for trophies but most by physicians who wanted cadavers to dissect.[76]
^The University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online requires a Dakota font to read special characters.[84] Here, Dakota to Latin alphabet transliteration is borrowed from Lerner Publishing in Minneapolis.[85]
^In Atwater's history, Baldwin gives the Sioux word as Minne.[86]Riggs gives mini.[87]Williamson who was most familiar with Santee has Mini, and in the Yankton dialect, mni.[88] Here, mni is from the University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online.[89]
^"Minneapolis would be the nation's flour capital for 50 years." and "Begun in 1848, timber milling had lasted for almost 50 years."[94]
^Soldiers from Fort Snelling built a sawmill in 1820, and a gristmill in 1823, on the west bank near the falls.[92][93][i] The city's first commercial sawmill was built in 1848, and the first commercial gristmill in 1849.[95]
^In 1928, Washburn-Crosby merged with other local millers and changed its name to General Mills to reflect a wider product base including convenience foods like Wheaties.[118]
^In a 1975 article, reporter John Carman said the city's highest point is 967 feet (295 m) at Deming Heights Park in the Waite Park neighborhood.[187] The US Geological Survey lists the highest elevation as 980 feet (300 m) but does not give a location.[186] Geography professor John Tichy said the highest point is the site of Waite Park Elementary School at approximately 985 feet (300 m) above sea level.[188] All of the cited sources that list locations say the highest point is within the Northeast section of the city.
^Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e., the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at the said location from 1991 to 2020.
^Official records for Minneapolis/Saint Paul were kept by the Saint Paul Signal Service in that city from January 1871 to December 1890, the Minneapolis Weather Bureau from January 1891 to April 8, 1938, and at Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport (KMSP) since April 9, 1938.[213]
^Separately, Myers describes how the Minneapolis police department's adoption of CODEFOR in 1998 increased policing in areas of Minneapolis that were disproportionately non-White, with dual results: "Minority residents are afforded improved safety and law enforcement services; minority offenders unsurprisingly may be disproportionately apprehended for relatively minor transgressions in order to achieve the higher levels of safety."[295]
^The Minnesota Opera has offices in Minneapolis and performs in Saint Paul.[349]
^Minneapolis had planted more than 200,000 American elms on its streets and parks before Dutch elm disease was found in the city in 1963. By 1977, when the most were lost to the epidemic and the city began its control program, the Twin Cities had lost 192,000 elm trees to the disease, and more than 30,000 diseased trees were found in Minneapolis.[426]
^The Treaty of 1837 forced Dakota to make the largest land cession—all of their land east of the Mississippi.[494] Then the Dakota ceded more of their land in the Treaty of 1851.[495]
^As of early 2024, the extension was nine years behind schedule and US$1.5 billion over budget.[539]
^A Sahan Journal investigation covering the state from 2019 to 2023 found that "Native Americans were at least 15 times", Somali Minnesotans were twice as likely, and "Latino Minnesotans were 1.5 times" as likely to die from opioid overdoses than White persons.[574]
^Thompson, Derek (March 2015). "The Miracle of Minneapolis". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on May 25, 2023. Retrieved April 28, 2023. By spreading the wealth to its poorest neighborhoods, the metro area provides more-equal services in low-income places, and keeps quality of life high just about everywhere.
^Weber 2022, p. 4, "The overarching goal is to take what may be the most significant issue facing contemporary Minneapolis—the crippling disparities among its people, exposed to the world in 2020, after the murder of George Floyd—and present a history that examines why those disparities exist, even as the city makes a legitimate argument for itself as a must-see or must-live kind of place.".
^McConvell, Rhodes & Güldemann 2020, pp. 560, 564, "Finally in this time frame other groups of Ojibwes began pushing to the west and southwest, at the expense of the Dakota groups".
^Westerman & White 2012, pp. 3–4, "William H. Keating, a geologist who came to the Minnesota area on an exploratory expedition in 1823, observed, 'The Dacotas have no tradition of having ever emigrated, from any other place, to the spot on which they now reside...'.
^Westerman & White 2012, pp. 134, 136, Page 136: "Treaties played a crucial role in the increasing separation of the Dakota from their homeland in the years between 1805 and 1858, leading up to their ultimate expulsion by military force in 1863–64." and page 134: "For the Dakota the word cessions might well be replaced with seizures..." and "Collectively these treaties included three great cessions, comprising the Treaties of 1825, 1837, and 1851".
^"Treaties". Minnesota Historical Society. July 31, 2012. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021. These treaties, which were almost wholly dishonored by the U.S. government...
^Westerman & White 2012, p. 194, "The remaining seventeen hundred women, children, and elderly, including hundreds of noncomabatants, some of whom had protected white settler refugees from the war, were rounded up and force-marched to a concentration camp beneath the bluffs of Fort Snelling....".
^"mni". University of Minnesota Dakota Dictionary Online. University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on October 13, 2022. Retrieved October 13, 2022.
^Amagai, Takuya; Kasper, Sahree; the Minnesota Environments Team. "Mills of Minneapolis". Minnesota Environments. Carleton College. Archived from the original on August 20, 2024. Retrieved August 21, 2024.
^Risjord 2005, p. 131, "By then, however, the pine woods were virtually exhausted".
^Lass 2000, p. 180, Here, Lass calls the lumbermen's actions as cutting at a "rapacious rate", and calls out a "rapacious assault on the coniferous forests" on page 196.
^Lass 2000, p. 238, "The anticipated decline came rather abruptly during the 1920s. By the end of that decade the Mill City produced only slightly more than half as much flour as it had at its zenith, and ranked third after Buffalo and Kansas City, Missouri.".
^Stipanovich 1982, p. 104, "Thus while Minneapolis began to lose jobs in the mills, it began to acquire other jobs in management, financial administration, advertising, market research, product research and design, and other mid-level management and administrative positions. The effect was to upgrade the workforce...".
^Stipanovich 1982, p. 111, "The university's role grew more and more important as the 20th century rolled along, for basic research and experimentation grew more complex and costly and as time went by.".
^Ladd-Taylor 2005, p. 242, "Eitel, the founder of the private Eitel Hospital and a vice-president of Dight's eugenics society, performed the first 150 surgeries; his nephew George D. Eitel took over the work after the old man died in 1928".
^Garrettson 1993, p. 85, "On the second try, the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) bill passed in 1948. It was the 'first municipal FEPC bill in America'".
^Weber 2022, p. 141, "Explaining the name, Clyde Bellecourt remembered Alberta Downwind saying at AIM's founding: Indian is the word that they used to oppress us. Indian is the word we'll use to gain our freedom".
^"Same-Sex Marriage in Minnesota". Minnesota Issues Resource Guides. Minnesota Legislative Reference Library. July 2022. Archived from the original on June 5, 2023. Retrieved June 5, 2023.
^Mitchell 2022, p. 44, "Two years have passed since Floyd was killed, but the site where he died...continues to be contested space—an ongoing site of protest—but also a sacred location".
^"Minneapolis". Emporis. Archived from the original on April 23, 2007. Retrieved January 12, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^"Physical Environment". City of Minneapolis. p. 39. Archived from the original on February 10, 2023. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
^Water Resources Management Plan(PDF) (Report). City of Minneapolis. December 14, 2021. pp. 3–14, ES-4. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
^Water Resources Management Plan(PDF) (Report). City of Minneapolis. December 14, 2021. p. 3-1. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
^Neighborhood and Community Relations (February 2020). "Neighborhoods 2020 Program Guidelines"(PDF). Legislative Information Management System. City of Minneapolis. Archived(PDF) from the original on May 22, 2024. Retrieved May 22, 2024.
^Albert 1981, p. 561, "...Minneapolis received by far the greater share (see Table 30.2). Camp Savage and Fort Snelling, the greatest magnets for wives, relatives, and friends of those stationed there, were more accessible from Minneapolis than from St. Paul".
^Weber 2022, p. 159: "President Donald Trump's executive order in 2017 banned new immigration from Somalia and several other majority-Muslim nations. Just forty-eight people came to Minnesota from Somalia in 2018, down from more than fourteen hundred in 2016," and further reading p. 187.
^Delegard & Ehrman-Solberg 2017, pp. 73–74, "...the Seven Oaks Corporation, a real estate developer that inserted this same language into thousands of deeds across the city.".
^Walker et al. 2023, p. 5, "...the Mapping Prejudice team showed that, prior to the introduction of covenants in 1910, the residences of people of color were dispersed throughout the city, yet as developers added thousands of racial covenants to deeds in Minneapolis until 1955, the city's neighborhoods became increasingly racially segregated".
^Waxman, Olivia B. (June 2, 2020). "George Floyd's Death and the Long History of Racism in Minneapolis". Time. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved November 17, 2022. Delegard told Time, 'Structural racism is really baked into the geography of this city and as a result it really permeates every institution in this city.'
^"Goals: 1. Eliminate disparities". Department of Community Planning & Economic Development. City of Minneapolis. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved November 17, 2022. ...in 2010, Minneapolis led the nation in having the widest unemployment disparity between African-American and white residents. This remains true in 2018. And disparities also exist in nearly every other measurable social aspect, including of economic, housing, safety and health outcomes, between people of color and indigenous people compared with white people." and "In Minneapolis, 83 percent of white non-Hispanics have more than a high school education, compared with 47 percent of black people and 45 percent of American Indians. Only 32 percent of Hispanics have more than a high school education.
^"Goals: 1. Eliminate disparities". Department of Community Planning & Economic Development. City of Minneapolis. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
^Factors outlined include racial gaps in opportunity, limited pre-school subsidy programs, educator bias, differences in families' and schools' economic resources, less-experienced teachers, and completion rate gaps. Grunewald, Rob; Horowitz, Ben; Ky, Kim-Eng; Tchourumoff, Alene (January 11, 2021). Minnesota's education system shows persistent opportunity gaps by race (Report). Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Archived from the original on June 18, 2023. Retrieved June 18, 2023. This article highlights evidence of how systemic racism undermines the education system in Minnesota.
^Millett 2007, pp. 159–160, "Christ Church was Saarinen's last building" and "the addition was among Eero's last commissions".
^ abHalvorsen Ludt, Tamara; Fritz, Laurel; Anderson, Lauren (June 2020). Minneapolis in the Modern Era: 1930–1975(PDF). Community Planning and Economic Development (Report). City of Minneapolis. pp. 7.24, 7.27. Archived from the original(PDF) on September 22, 2022. Retrieved July 14, 2022.
^Whitmore 2004, Whitmore cites the 1903 New York Herald which calls T. B. Walker "the Pine King of the West" and says "...the gallery is open to the public six days in the week, and all who ring his bell and ask to see the old masters receive not only permission from the white-aproned maid who answers the ring, but also a catalogue as well.".
^Regan, Sheila (February 8, 2022). "New documentary looks back at Minneapolis' 1970s-era experimental arts program". MinnPost. Archived from the original on April 22, 2023. Retrieved April 22, 2023. FITC began as a program offered through the Minneapolis Public Schools, under the umbrella of the Urban Arts Program....(Among the notable alumni of the Urban Arts program was none other than Prince himself.)
^Roise, Charlene; Gales, Elizabeth; Koehlinger, Kristen; Goetz, Kathryn; Hess, Roise and Company; Zschomler, Kristen; Rouse, Stephanie; Wittenberg, Jason (December 2018). Minneapolis Music History, 1850–2000: A Context(PDF) (Report). City of Minneapolis. p. 42. Archived(PDF) from the original on May 15, 2023. Retrieved May 1, 2023. A true musical prodigy, Prince mastered the piano by about age eight while living at 2620 Eighth Avenue North, where he could play anything he heard by ear on the piano and began songwriting.
^"A Tale Of Twin Cities: Hüsker Dü, The Replacements And The Rise And Fall Of The '80s Minneapolis Scene". Magnet magazine. June 12, 2005. Archived from the original on April 12, 2024. Retrieved July 24, 2024. For a few years in the mid-'80s, not long after Athens and sometime before Seattle, the epicenter of American underground rock was Minneapolis....But genius can put any town on the map, which Prince accomplished for his home city with 1984 album and film Purple Rain, whose prominent concert footage was shot at a local club called First Avenue.
^Corrigan & Sigelman 2018, p. x, "At the dawn of the 1980s, the Twin Cities music scene was poised to explode.... Husker Du, the Replacements, Loud Fast Rules (later Soul Asylum) and others were fast building rabid local followings and would soon achieve national acclaim.... At the same time, a vibrant R&B, funk, and soul scene was maturing and forming what would be known as the "Minneapolis sound." The young guitar and songwriting virtuoso Prince was perfecting his innovative and infectious style...".
^Matos, Michaelangelo (March 14, 2016). "Everybody Is a Star: How the Rock Club First Avenue Made Minneapolis the Center of Music in the '80s". Pitchfork. Condé Nast. Archived from the original on April 16, 2023. Retrieved April 16, 2023. Minneapolis music peaked in the middle of 1984: Purple Rain in theaters, the release of Hüsker Dü's Zen Arcade, and the 12" of the Replacements' "I Will Dare". By 1987, that crazy peak had subsided. Hüsker Dü released another double LP in January...but broke up shortly after their manager David Savoy's suicide. On May 27, the Replacements played First Avenue for the last time. And in September, Prince opened Paisley Park Studios way out in Chanhassen....
^Wood, Drew (March–April 2018). "The Fierce Urgency of North". Minnesota Business. Tiger Oak Media. Archived from the original on June 25, 2018. Retrieved March 25, 2018.
^"Baseball Stadiums in Minnesota". Minnesota Issues Resource Guides. Minnesota Legislative Reference Library. October 2022. Archived from the original on April 15, 2023. Retrieved April 15, 2023.
^Nadenicek & Neckar 2002, p. xxxix, "With other societal superintendents influenced by the ideals of New England, Cleveland was later able to design and implement his crowning achievement, the Minneapolis Park System.".
^Nadenicek & Neckar 2002, pp. xli, "Cleveland successfully linked boulevards, small neighborhood parks of Parisian derivation, prairie ponds with wild islands, and lake-edge parkways".
^Smith 2008, p. xi, "The public spirit of those who envisioned the future also made sure Minneapolis was a city of trees. Often lost in consideration of the city's parks is that, from the very early days of the Minneapolis park board, it has been responsible for planting and maintaining street trees".
^Smith 2008, p. x, "The first thing that most visitors notice about Minneapolis parks is one of the unique features of the city: nearly every foot of land that borders water, other than stretches of the Mississippi River banks north of Broadway, is owned by the park board." and "This extraordinary fact of public life in Minneapolis, that the people own the waterways...".
^Almeroth-Williams, Tom (April 6, 2020). "The great university land-grab". University of Cambridge. Archived from the original on February 14, 2024. Retrieved April 11, 2024. The Treaty of 1837 gave 1,062,334 acres, more than any other land cession, to 33 LGUs
^"Minnesota Newspaper Directory"(PDF). Minnesota Newspaper Association. March 2024. Archived(PDF) from the original on March 15, 2024. Retrieved March 20, 2024.
^ ab"About the Partnership". Minneapolis Clean Energy Partnership. Archived from the original on April 19, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2023.
^Water Resources Management Plan(PDF) (Report). City of Minneapolis. December 14, 2021. pp. 3–11, 3–25. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
The Minneapolis '76 Bicentennial Commission (1976). Minneapolis Frontiers, Firsts & Futures: A Bicentennial Commemorative Guide to the History of the City of Minneapolis. The Minneapolis '76 Bicentennial Commission. OCLC3804178.
Nadenicek, Daniel J.; Neckar, Lance M. (April 2002) [1873]. Introduction. Landscape Architecture, as Applied to the Wants of the West; with an Essay on Forest Planting on the Great Plains. By Cleveland, H. W. S.University of Massachusetts Press in association with Library of American Landscape History. ISBN978-1-55849-330-8.
Bly, Mark; Schechter, Joel (November 1, 1979). "The Guthrie: An Interview with Alvin Epstein and Michael Feingold". Theater. 10 (3): 33–39. doi:10.1215/00440167-10-3-33. ISSN1527-196X.
Clemmons, L.M. (2005). "'We Will Talk of Nothing Else': Dakota Interpretations of the Treaty of 1837". Great Plains Quarterly. 25 (3): 173–185. ISSN0275-7664. JSTOR23533608.
Craig, William J. (2023). "35W Impact on South Minneapolis". Hennepin History. 82 (2): 9–11. ISSN1062-1067.
Wright, H. E. Jr. (1990). "Geologic History of Minnesota Rivers"(PDF). Minnesota Geological Survey Educational Series. 7: iii–20. ISSN0544-3083. Archived(PDF) from the original on April 20, 2021. Retrieved November 16, 2020 – via South Washington Watershed District.
Waziyatawin (2008). What Does Justice Look Like?: The Struggle for Liberation in Dakota Homeland (1st ed.). Living Justice Press. ISBN978-0-9721886-5-4.
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