For the Argentine comic books character, see Nippur de Lagash. For the fictional planet in the Asimov story also known as Kalgash, see Lagash (Nightfall).
Robert Koldewey, Vaughn E. Crawford, Donald P. Hansen
Lagash[4]/ˈleɪɡæʃ/ (cuneiform: 𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠 LAGAŠKI; Sumerian: Lagaš) was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about 22 kilometres (14 mi) east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash (modern Al-Hiba in Dhi Qar Governorate) was one of the oldest cities of the Ancient Near East. The ancient site of Nina (Tell Zurghul) is around 10 km (6.2 mi) away and marks the southern limit of the state. Nearby Girsu (modern Telloh), about 25 km (16 mi) northwest of Lagash, was the religious center of the Lagash state. The Lagash state's main temple was the E-ninnu at Girsu, dedicated to the god Ningirsu. The Lagash state incorporated the ancient cities of Lagash, Girsu, Nina.[5]
History
Though some Uruk period pottery shards were found in a surface survey, significant occupation at the site of Lagash began early in the 3rd Millennium BC, in the Early Dynastic I period (c. 2900-2600 BC), surface surveys and excavations show that the peak occupation, with an area of about 500 hectares occurred during the Early Dynastic III period (c. 2500–2334 BC). The later corresponds with what is now called the First Dynasty of Lagash.[6] Lagash then came under the control of the Akkadian Empire for several centuries. With the fall of that empire, Lagash had a period of revival as an independent power during the 2nd Dynasty of Lagash before coming under the control of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur. After the fall of Ur, there was some modest occupation in the Isin-Larsa and Old Babylonian periods.[7] Lagash was then largely deserted until a Seleucid era fortress was built there in the 2nd century BC.[8]
Location of Lagash before the expansion of the Akkadian Empire (in green). The territory of Sumer appears in orange. Circa 2350 BC
First dynasty of Lagash (c. 2520 – c. 2260 BC)
Relief of Ur-Nanshe. At the top he creates the foundation for a shrine, at the bottom he presides over the dedication (Louvre).Entemena's inscribed silver vase, c. 2400 BC (Louvre)
The dynasties of Lagash are not found on the Sumerian King List (SKL) despite being a power in the Early Dynastic period and a major city in the centuries that followed. One tablet, from the later Old Babylonian period and known as The Rulers of Lagash, was described by its translator as "rather fanciful" and is generally considered to be a satirical parody of the SKL. The thirty listed rulers, in the style of the SKL, having improbable reigns, include seven known rulers from the 1st Dynasty of Lagash, including Ur-Nanshe, "Ane-tum", En-entar-zid, Ur-Ningirsu, Ur-Bau, and Gudea.[9][10]
Little is known of the first two rulers of Lagash. En-hegal is believed to be the first ruler of Lagash. A tablet with his name describes a business transaction, in which a possible King En-hegal buys land.[11] Both his status and date are disputed.[12] He was followed by Lugalshaengur about whom also little is known.[13]Mesilim, who called himself King of Kish though it is uncertain which city he was from, named Lugalshaengur as an "ensi" of Lagash on a mace head.[14]
Ur-Nanshe
While many details like the length of reign are not known for the next ruler, Ur-Nanshe, a number of his inscriptions have been found, most at Lagash with one stele at Ur, which along with Umma, he claimed to have conquered in battle.[15] Almost all deal with the construction of temples, one details how he "built the wester[n] channel at the side of Sa[la]/ channel at the side of S[al] (against) the Amorites". He is described as the "son of Gu-NI.DU" (occasionally as "son of Gur:SAR"), and his inscriptions list a number of sons and daughters.[16] Several inscription say "He [had the ships of Dil]mun sub[mit] [timber] (to Lagaß) as tribute." His son Akurgal ruled briefly after him.[17]
Eannatum
The next ruler, Eannatum (earlier referred to as "Eannadu"), son of Akurgal and grandson of Ur-Nanshe, turned Lagash into a major power extending throughout large areas of Mesopotamia and to the east as well. In an inscription found at ancient Adab:
"Eannatum, ruler of Lagash, granted strength by Enlil, nourished with special milk by Ninhursag, nominated by Ningirsu, chosen in her heart by Nanshe, son of Akurgal ruler of Lagash, defeated mountainous Elam, defeated Urua, defeated Umma, defeated Ur. At that time, he built a well of fired bricks for Ningirsu in his (Ningirsu’s) broad courtyard. His personal god is Shulultul. Then, Ningirsu loved Eannatum."[18]
Eannatum, King of Lagash, riding a war chariot (detail of the Stele of the Vultures). His name "Eannatum" (𒂍𒀭𒈾𒁺) is written vertically in two columns in front of his head. Louvre Museum.
Another inscription detail his destruction of "Kiß, Akßak, and Mari at a place named Antasur". He also claimed to have taken the city of Akshak and killed its king, Zuzu.[19] Eannatum took the city of Uru'az on the Persian Gulf, and exacted tribute as far as Mari; however, many of the realms he conquered were often in revolt.[20] During his reign, temples and palaces were repaired or erected at Lagash and elsewhere and canals and reservoirs were excavated.[21] During his reign, Dilmun was a major trading partner.[22]
A long running border dispute, dating back at least to the time of Lugalshaengur, existed between the city-states of Umma and Lagash.[23] In the time of Umma ruler Mesilim a formal border was established. Eannatum restored the border, including the boundary markers of Mesilim.
"Eanatum, ruler of Lagash, uncle of Enmetena ruler of Lagash, demarcated the border with Enakale, ruler of Umma. He extended the [boundary-]channel from the Nun-channel to Guʾedena, leaving a 215-nindan [= 1,290 meters] [strip] of Ningirsu’s land under Umma’s control, establishing a no-man’s land there. He inscribed [and erected] monuments at that [boundary-]channel, and restored the monument of Mesalim, but did not cross into the plain of Umma.
"[24]
Vase of King Gishakidu, king of Umma, and son of Ur-Lumma, giving the city of Umma's account of its long-running border dispute with Lagash. The vase redefines the frontier by recording the locations of stelae to the god Shara, as well as the distances between them. Circa 2350 BC. From Umma, Iraq. Ref. 140889, British Museum, London.[25]
In c. 2450 BC, Lagash and the neighboring city of Umma fell out with each other after a border dispute over the Guʾedena, a fertile area lying between them. As described in Stele of the Vultures, of which only a portion has been found (7 fragments), the current king of Lagash, Eannatum, inspired by the patron god of his city, Ningirsu, set out with his army to defeat the nearby city.[26] According to the Stele's engravings, when the two sides met each other in the field, Eannatum dismounted from his chariot and proceeded to direct his men on foot. After lowering their spears, the Lagash army advanced upon the army from Umma in a dense phalanx.[27] After a brief clash, Eannatum and his army had gained victory over the army of Umma. This battle is one of the earliest depicted organised battles known to scholars and historians.[28]
Eannatum was succeeded by his brother, En-anna-tum I. Given the many inscriptions his reign is assumed to be of some length. Most of them detailed the usual temple construction. On long tablet described the continued conflict with Umma:
"For the god Hendursag, chief herald of the Abzu En-anatum, [ru]ler of [Laga]ß ... When the god Enlil(?)], for the god [Nin]g[ir]s[u], took [Gu'edena] from the hands of Gisa (Umma) and filled En-anatum’s hands with it, Ur-LUM-ma, ruler of Gisa (Umma), [h]i[red] [(mercenaries from) the foreign lands] and transgressed the boun[da]ry-channel of the god Ningirsu (and said): ... En-anatum crushed Ur-LUM-ma, ruler of Gisa (Umma) as far as E-kisura (“Boundary) Channel”) of the god Ninœirsu. He pursued him into the ... of (the town) LUM-ma-girnunta. (En-anatum) gagged (Ur-LUM-ma) (against future land claims)"[14]
The conflict from the Umma side of things from its ruler Ur-Lumma:
"Urlumma, ruler of Umma, diverted water into the boundary-channel of Ningirsu and the boundary-channel of Nan-she. He set fire to their monuments and smashed them, and destroyed the established chapels of the gods that were built on the boundary-levee called Namnunda-kigara. He recruited foreigners and transgressed the boundary-ditch of Ningirsu."[29]
Entemena
The next ruler, Entemena increased the power of Lagash during his rule. A number of inscriptions from his reign are known.[30][31] He was a contemporary of Lugalkinishedudu of Uruk.[32]
Entemena was succeeded by his brother Enannatum II, with only one known inscription where he "restored for the god Ningirsu his brewery".[14] He was followed by two more minor rulers, Enentarzi (only one inscription from his 5 year reign, which mentions his daughter Gem[e]-Baba), and Lugalanda (several inscriptions, one mentions his wife Bara-namtara) the son of Enentarzi. The last ruler of Lagash, Urukagina, was known for his judicial, social, and economic reforms, and his may well be the first legal code known to have existed.[33][34] He was defeated by Lugalzagesi, beginning when Lugalzagesi was ruler of Umma and culminating as ruler of Uruk, bringing an end to the First Dynasty of Lagash.[35] About 1800 cuneiform tablets from the reigns of the last three rulers of Lagash, of an administrative nature, have been found, mostly.[36][37][38] The tablets are mostly from the "woman’s quarter" also known as the temple of the goddess Babu. It was under the control of the Queen.[39]
The cuneiform text states that Enannatum I reminds the gods of his prolific temple achievements in Lagash. Circa 2400 BC. From Girsu, Iraq. The British Museum, London
The name "Lagash" (𒉢𒁓𒆷) in vertical cuneiform of the time of Ur-Nanshe.
The armies of Lagash led by Eannatum in their conflict against Umma.
Lancers of the army of Lagash against Umma
Under the Akkadian Empire
In his conquest of Sumer circa 2300 BC, Sargon of Akkad, after conquering and destroying Uruk, then conquered Ur and E-Ninmar and "laid waste" the territory from Lagash to the sea, and from there went on to conquer and destroy Umma, and he collected tribute from Mari and Elam. He triumphed over 34 cities in total.[40]
Sargon's son and successor Rimush faced widespread revolts, and had to reconquer the cities of Ur, Umma, Adab, Lagash, Der, and Kazallu from rebellious ensis.[41]
Rimush introduced mass slaughter and large scale destruction of the Sumerian city-states, and maintained meticulous records of his destruction.[41] Most of the major Sumerian cities were destroyed, and Sumerian human losses were enormous: for the cities of Ur and Lagash, he records 8,049 killed, 5,460 "captured and enslaved" and 5,985 "expelled and annihilated".[41][42]
A Victory Stele in several fragments (three in total, Louvre Museum AO 2678)[43] has been attributed to Rimush on stylistic and epigraphical grounds. One of the fragments mentions Akkad and Lagash.[44] It is thought that the stele represents the defeat of Lagash by the troops of Akkad.[45] The stele was excavated in ancient Girsu, one of the main cities of the territory of Lagash.[44]
Fragments of the Victory Stele of Rimush. The Victory Stele also has an epigraphic fragment, mentioning Akkad and Lagash.[44] It suggests the stele represents the defeat of Lagash by the troops of Akkad.[45]
Possible victory stele of king Rimush (front).[46] Generally attributed to Rimush on stylistic grounds.[47]
Detail
Man of Lagash, circa 2270 BC, from the Victory Stele.[48] The same hairstyle can be seen in other statues from Lagash.[49]
During the reigns of the first two rulers of this dynasty Lugal-ushumgal (under Naram-Sin and Shar-Kali-Sharri) and Puzur-Mama (under Shar-kali-shari), Lagash was still under the control of the Akkadian Empire. It has been suggested that another governor, Ur-e, fell between them.[50] After the death of Shar-Kali-shari Puzur-Mama declared Lagash independent (known from an inscription that may also mention Elamite ruler Kutik-Inshushinak). This independence appears to have been tenuous as Akkadian Empire ruler Dudu reports taking booty from there.[14]
With the fall of Akkad, Lagash achieved full independence under Ur-Ningirsu I (not to be confused with the later Lagash ruler named Ur-Ningirsu, the son of Gudea). Unlike the 1st Dynasty of Lagash, this series of rulers used year names. Two of Ur-Ningirsu are known including "year: Ur-Ningirsu (became) ruler". His few inscriptions are religious in nature.[51] Almost nothing is known of his son and successor.[52] The next three rulers, Lu-Baba, Lugula, and Kaku are known only from their first year names. The following ruler, Ur-Baba, is notable mainly because three of his daughters married later rulers of Lagash, Gudea, Nam-mahani, and Ur-gar.[53] His inscriptions are all of a religious nature, including building or restoring the "Eninnu, the White Thunderbird".[54] Five of his year names are known. At this point Lagash is still at best a small local power. In some case the absolute order of rulers is not known with complete certainty.[55]
Gudea
While the Gutians had partially filled the power vacuum left by the fall of the Akkadian Empire, under Gudea Lagash entered a period of independence marked by riches and power.[56] Thousands of inscriptions of various sorts have been found from his reign and an untold number of statues of Gudea.[57] A number of cuneiform tablets of an administrative nature, from Gudea's rule were found at nearby Girsu.[58] Also found at Girsu were the famous Gudea cylinders which contain the longest known text in the Sumerian language.[59][60] He was prolific at temple building and restoring.[61] He is known to have conducted some military operations to the east against Anshan and Elam.[62][63] Twenty of Gudea's year names are known. All are of a religious nature except for one that marks the building of a canal and year six "Year in which the city of Anszan was smitten by weapons".[64] While the conventional view has been that the reign of Gudea fell well before that of Ur-Nammu, ruler of Ur, and during a time of Gutian power, a number of researchers contend that Gudea's rule overlaps with that of Ur-Nammu and the Gutians had already been defeated.[65] This view is strengthened by the fact that Ur-Baba appointed Enanepada as high preiestess of Ur while Naram-Sin of Akkad had appointed her predecessor Enmenana and Ur-Namma of Ur appointed her successor Ennirgalana.[66]
Gudea was succeeded by his son Ur-Ningirsu, followed by Ur-gar. Little is known about either aside from an ascension year name each and a small handful of inscriptions. It has been suggested that two other brief rulers fit into the sequence here, Ur-ayabba and Ur-Mama but the evidence for that is thin.[67] Two tablets dated to the reign of Ur-Nammu of Ur refer to Ur-ayabba as "ensi" of Lagash, meaning governor in Ur III terms and king in Lagash.[66]
Nam-mahani
Little is known of the next ruler aside from his ascension year name and a handful of religious inscriptions. Nam-mahani is primarily known for being defeated by Ur-Nammu, first ruler of the Ur III empire and being considered the last ruler of the second dynasty of Lagash (often called the Gudean Dynasty). In the prologue of the Code of Ur-Nammu it states "He slew Nam-ha-ni the ensi of Lagash".[68] A number of his inscriptions were defaced and the statues of Nam-mahani and his wife were beheaded (the head were not found with the statues by Ur-Nammu in what is usually called an act of Damnatio memoriae.[57]
Under the Ur III Empire
Under the control of Ur, the Lagash state (Lagash. Girsu, and Nigin) were the largest and most prosperous province of the empire. Such was its importance that the second highest official in the empire, the Grand Vizier, resided there.[69][70][71][72] The name of one governor of Lagash under Ur is known, Ir-Nanna. After the fifth year of the last Ur II ruler, Ibbi-Sin, his year name was no longer used at Lagash, indicating Ur no longer controlled that city.[73]
Archaeology
At the time of Hammurabi, Lagash was located near the shoreline of the gulf.Goddess Nisaba with an inscription of Entemena, ruler of Lagash (2430 BC), steatite, Vorderasiatisches Museum Berlin
Lagash is one of the largest archaeological sites in the region, measuring roughly 3.5 kilometers north to south and 1.5 kilometers east to west though is relatively low being only 6 meters above the plain level at maximum. Much of the older area is under the current water table and not available for research. A drone survey determined that Lagash developed on four marsh islands some of which were gated.[74] The notion that the city was marsh-based is in contention.[75] Estimates of its area range from 400 to 600 hectares (990 to 1,480 acres). The site is divided by the bed of a canal/river, which runs diagonally through the mound. The site was first excavated, for six weeks, by Robert Koldewey in 1887.[76]
"To be sure, the difficulties involved were known, at least after Koldewey’s disaster in el-Hibba where, unprepared to deal with structures of unbaked material, he did not recognize the walls but only those baked bricks which had been used for lining graves, leading him to conclude that el-Hibba was nothing but an extended burial place."[77]
It was inspected during a survey of the area by Thorkild Jacobsen and Fuad Safar in 1953, finding the first evidence of its identification as Lagash.[78] The major polity in the region of al-Hiba and Tello had formerly been identified as ŠIR.BUR.LA (Shirpurla).[79]
Remains of the ancient city of Lagash
Tell Al-Hiba was again explored in five seasons of excavation between 1968 and 1976 by a team from the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Institute of Fine Arts of New York University. The team was led by Vaughn E. Crawford, and included Donald P. Hansen and Robert D. Biggs. Twelve archaeological layers were found with the bottom 9 being Early Dynastic and the lowest under the water table. The primary focus was the excavation of the temple Ibgal of Inanna and the temple Bagara of Ningirsu, as well as an associated administrative area.[80][81][82][83] The team returned 12 years later, in 1990, for a sixth and final season of excavation led by D. P. Hansen. The work primarily involved areas adjacent to an, as yet, unexcavated temple Ibgal of the goddess Inanna in the southwest edge of the city. The Bagara temple of Ningirsu was also worked on. Both were built by Early Dynastic III king Eannatum. Temples to the goddesses Gatumdag, Nanshe, and Bau are known to have existed but have not yet been found. A canal linked the E-ninnu temple of Ningirsu at Girsu, the E-sirara temple of Nanshe at Nigin, and the Bagara temple at Lagash, the three cities being part of one large state.[84][85][86] In 1984 a surface survey found that most finds were from the Early Dynastic III period. Small amounts of Uruk, Jemdet Nasr, Isin-Larsa, Old Babylonian and Kassite shards were found in isolated areas.[87]
The name Lagash Ki (𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠, "Country of Lagash") on inscriptions of Gudea, in monumental linear script and cuneiform script on clay.
In March–April 2019, field work resumed as the Lagash Archaeological Project[88] under the directorship of Dr. Holly Pittman of the University of Pennsylvania's Penn Museum in collaboration with the University of Cambridge and Sara Pizzimenti of the University of Pisa. A second season ran from October to November in 2021. A third season ran from March 6 to April 10, 2022.[89] The work primarily involved the Early Dynastic Period Area G and Area H locations along with Geophysical Surveying and Geoarchaeology. The focus was on an industrial area and associated streets, residences, and kilns. Aerial mapping of Lagash, both using UAV drone mapping and satellite imagery was performed.[90] In the fall of 2022 a 4th season of excavation resumed. Among the finds were a public eatery with ovens, a refrigeration system, benches, and large numbers of bowls and beakers.[91][92][93][94]
Archaeological remains
Area A (Ibgal of Inanna)
Though commonly known as Area A or the Ibgal of Inanna, this temple complex was actually named Eanna during the Ur periods, while Inanna’s sanctuary within Eanna was known as Ibgal.[95]
Level I architecture
3-D reconstruction of Area A by Keifuhui (Front)
Level I of Area A was occupied from Early Dynastic (ED I) to Ur III.[95] It was used for both daily worship activities and festive celebrations, particularly for the queen of Lagash during the Barley and Malt-eating festivals of Nanše.[95][96]
Level I consists of an oval wall on the Northeast end, surrounding an extensive courtyard. The fragments, together comparison to another Sumerian temple at Khafajah, show that the wall should originally be approximately 130m long.[97]
For the temple-building, it is connected to the courtyard with steps. Twenty-five rooms have been excavated inside the building, in which the western ones would open up to the outside of the temple with corridors and form a tripartite entrance.[95] Both the temple-building and the oval wall were built with plano-convex mud bricks, which was a very common material up to the late Early Dynastic III period. Additionally, foundations are found under the temple-building. They are composed of rectangular areas of various sizes, some as solid mud bricks and some as cavities of broken pieces of alluvial mud and layers of sand, then capped again with mud bricks.[97]
3-D reconstruction of Area A by Keifuhui
Level II and Level III architecture
Two more levels are present beneath Level I. All of them are similar to each other in terms of layout and construction materials. During the process of building on top of each other, workers at that time would choose to destroy some portions while keeping some others, leading to much open speculation as to the rationales behind.[98]
Area B (3HB Building and 4HB Building at Bagara of Ningirsu)
The 3HB Building
Three building levels were discovered and 3HB III is the earliest and most well-preserved level. 3HB II and 3HB I shared the same layout with 3HB III. All three levels have a central niched-and-buttressed building which is surrounded by a low enclosure wall with unknown height.[95]
An excavator believes that the 3HB Building was a “kitchen temple” that aimed at meeting some of the god’s demands.[99] Alternatively, it has been suggested that the building was a shrine in the Bagara complex as it shared more similarities with other temples than kitchens in terms of layout, features and contents.[95]
The 4HB Building
3-D reconstruction of Area B by Dcldeobi (Back)
The excavators discovered five building levels. The layout of 4HB V cannot be obtained due to limited exploration. 4HB IV-4HB I shared the same layout. 4HB IVB was the first level that was exposed completely.[95]
It has been suggested that the 4HB Building is a brewery as ovens and storage vats and a tablet mentioning “the brewery” and “a brewer” were found.[99] An alternate proposal is that 4HB building is a kitchen as it shared lots of similarities with temple kitchens at Ur and Nippur.[95]
Area C
Located 360 meters southeast of Area B. It contains a large Early Dynastic administrative area with two building levels (1A and 1B). In level 1B were found sealing and tablets of Eanatum, Enanatum I, and Enmetena.[100]
Area G
3-D reconstruction of Area G by Nic9137
Area G is located at the midway of Area B in the North and Area A in the South. First excavated by Dr Donald P. Hansen in season 3H, Area G consists of a building complex and a curving wall which are separated by around 30-40m.[95]
Western Building Complex
3-D reconstruction of Area G by Nic9137
5 building levels are found in the area. There is little information about Levels I and IIA as they were poorly preserved without sealed floor deposits.[101] In Levels IIB, III and IV, changes can be found in the building complex with reconstructions. In Level III, benches are built near the eastern and northern courtyards. Sealings made in the “piedmont” style which are found in the rooms share a resemblance with the Seal Impression Strata of Ur and sealings from Inanna Temple at Nippur,[101] indicating the administrative nature of the buildings. Apart from institutional objects, fireplaces, bins and pottery were found in the rooms as well.[99]
Curving Wall (Eastern Zone)
A 2-m wide wall that runs from the south to the north is found on the eastern part of Area G. The features of the curving wall and the rooms found near it are determined to be different from other oval temples built in the Early Dynastic in other major states. Intrusive vertical drains are found at the base of the plano-convex foundation.[99] Archaeologists excavated further deeper to the water level during season 4H and found extensive Early Dynastic I deposits.[95]
List of rulers
Although the first dynasty of Lagash has become well-known based off of mentions on inscriptions contemporaneous with other dynasties from the Early Dynastic (ED) III period; it was not inscribed onto the Sumerian King List (SKL). The first dynasty of Lagash preceded the dynasty of Akkad in a time in which Lagash exercised considerable influence in the region. The following list should not be considered complete:
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^Douglas Frayne, "Lagas", in Presargonic Period: Early Periods, Volume 1 (2700-2350 BC), RIM The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia Volume 1, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 77-293, 2008 ISBN 9780802035868
^Vukosavović, Filip, "On Some Early Dynastic Lagaš Temples", Die Welt Des Orients, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 126–30, 2014
^Foster, Benjamin R. and Foster, Karen Polinger, "Early City-States", Civilizations of Ancient Iraq, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 35-50, 2009
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^Barton, George A., "The Babylonian Calendar in the Reigns of Lugalanda and Urkagina", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 251–71, 1911
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^Volk, K., "Puzur-Mama und die Reise des Königs", Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie und verwandte Gebiete, vol. 82 (ZA. 82), Berlin, 1992
^Edzard, Sibylle, "Ur-Ningirsu I", Gudea and his Dynasty, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 7-11, 1997
^Edzard, Sibylle, "Pirig-me", Gudea and his Dynasty, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 12-13, 1997
^Suter, Claudia E, "Who are the Women in Mesopotamian Art from ca. 2334-1763 BCE?", Who are the Women in Mesopotamian Art from ca. 2334-1763 BCE?", Kaskal, vol. 5, 1000-1055, 2008
^Heimpel, Wolfgang, "The Gates of the Eninnu", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 48, pp. 17–29, 1996
^Edzard, Sibylle, "Ur-Baba", Gudea and his Dynasty, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 15-25, 1997
^Zarins, Juris, "Lagash and the Gutians: a study of late 3rd millennium BC Mesopotamian archaeology, texts and politics", In Context: the Reade Festschrift, pp. 11-42, 2020
^ abH. Steible, "Neusumerische Bau- und Weihinschriften, Teil 1: Inschriften der II. Dynastie von Lagas", FAOS9/1, Stuttgart 1991
^Ira M. Price, "The great cylinder inscriptions A & B of Gudea: copied from the original clay cylinders of the Telloh Collection preserved in the Louvre. Transliteration, translation, notes, full vocabulary and sign-lifts", Volume 1Volume 2, Hinrichs, 1899
^Suter, Claudia E., "A New Edition of the Lagaš II Royal Inscriptions Including Gudea’s Cylinders", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 50, pp. 67–75, 1998
^Suter, Claudia E. Gudea's temple building: A comparison of written and pictorial accounts", Brill, 2000 ISBN978-90-56-93035-6
^Bartash, Vitali, "Gudea's Iranian Slaves: An Anatomy of Transregional Forced Mobility", Iraq 84, pp. 25-42, 2022
^Hansen, Donald P, "A sculpture of Gudea, governor of Lagash", Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts 64.1, pp. 4-19, 1988
^Steinkeller, Piotr, "The Date of Gudea and His Dynasty", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 47–53, 1988
^ abMichalowski, Piotr, "Networks of Authority and Power in Ur III Times", in From the 21st Century B.C. to the 21st Century A.D.: Proceedings of the International Conference on Neo-Sumerian Studies Held in Madrid, 22–24 July 2010, edited by Steven J. Garfinkle and Manuel Molina, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 169-206, 2013
^Maeda, Tohru, "Two Rulers by the Name of Ur-Ningirsu in Pre-Ur III Lagash", acta sumerologica Japan 10, pp. 19–35, 1988
^Finkelstein, J. J., "The Laws of Ur-Nammu", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 22, no. 3/4, pp. 66–82, 1968
^Maekawa, Kazuya, "The erín-people in Lagash of Ur III times", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale 70.1, pp. 9-44, 1976
^Maekawa, Kazuya, "The agricultural texts of Ur III Lagash of the British Museum (V)", Acta Sumerologica 3, pp. 37-61, 1981
^Maekawa, Kazuya, "The agricultural texts of Ur III Lagash of the British Museum (VIII)", ASJ, vol. 14, pp. 145-169, 1992
^Zarins, Juris, "Magan Shipbuilders at the Ur III Lagash State Dockyards (2062-2025 BC)", in Intercultural Relations Between South and Southwest Asia. Studies in Commemoration of ECL During Caspers (1934–1996), Oxford: BAR International Series (1826), pp. 209-229, 2008
^Frayne, Douglas, "Ibbi-Sîn E3/2.1.5", in Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 361-392, 1997
^E. Hammer. Multi-centric, marsh-based urbanism at the early Mesopotamian city of Lagash (Tell al-Hiba, Iraq). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. Vol. 68, December 2022, 101458. doi: 10.1016/j.jaa.2022.101458
^Pittman, Holly, et al., "Response to Emily Hammer’s article:“Multi-centric, Marsh-based urbanism at the early Mesopotamian city of Lagash (Tell al Hiba, Iraq)”", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 2023
^[1]Nissen, Hans J., "Uruk and I", Cuneiform Digital Library Journal 2024 (1), 2024
^Falkenstein, Adam, "Die Inschriften Gudeas von Lagaš", Analecta Orientalia 30, Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1966
^Amiaud, Arthur. "The Inscriptions of Telloh." Records of the Past, 2nd Ed. Vol. I. Ed. by A. H. Sayce, 1888. Accessed 19 Dec 2010. M. Amiaud notes that a Mr. Pinches (in his Guide to the Kouyunjik Gallery) contended ŠIR.BUR.LAki could be a logographic representation of "Lagash," but inconclusively.
^Donald P. Hansen, "Al-Hiba, 1968–1969: A Preliminary Report", Artibus Asiae, 32, pp. 243–58, 1970
^Donald P. Hansen, "Al-Hiba, 1970–1971: A Preliminary Report", Artibus Asiae, 35, pp. 2–70, 1973
^Hansen, D. P., "The Sixth Season at Al-Hiba", Mār Šipri 3 (1): 1–3, 1990
^S. Renette, "Lagash I: The Ceramic Corpus from Al-Hiba, 1968–1990 A Chrono-Typology of the Pottery Tradition in Southern Mesopotamia during the 3rd and Early 2nd Millenium BCE", Brepols, 2021 ISBN978-2-503-59020-2
^Ashby, Darren P., and Holly Pittman, "The Excavations at Tell al-Hiba–Areas A, B, and G", in Ancient Lagash Current Research and Future Trajectories - Proceedings of the Workshop held at the 10th ICAANE in Vienna, April 2016, pp. 87-114, 2022
^ abcdefghijklmnop[2] Darren Ashby, "Late Third Millennium Bce Religious Architecture At Tell Al-Hiba, Ancient Lagash", Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations, 2017
^Beld, S. G., "The queen of Lagash: ritual economy in a Sumerian State", Ph.D Dissertation, Near East Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 2002
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[3] Marchesi, Gianni, "Notes on Two Alleged Literary Texts from Al-Hiba/Lagaš", Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici sul Vicino Oriente Antico 16, pp. 3–17, 1999
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[4] Muhammed, Qassim M., Muhanad Alrakabi, and Jabbar M. Rashid, "Assessment of natural radioactivity in building material of the ancient city of Tell-Al Hiba in Thi-Qar southern Iraq", Res Militaris 12.2, pp. 3551–3561, 2022
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![Fragments of the Victory Stele of Rimush. The Victory Stele also has an epigraphic fragment, mentioning Akkad and Lagash.[44] It suggests the stele represents the defeat of Lagash by the troops of Akkad.[45]](File:Fragments_of_the_Victory_Stele_of_Rimush_(Heuzey).jpg)
![Possible victory stele of king Rimush (front).[46] Generally attributed to Rimush on stylistic grounds.[47]](File:Victory_stele-AO_2678-IMG_9053-gradient.jpg)
![Man of Lagash, circa 2270 BC, from the Victory Stele.[48] The same hairstyle can be seen in other statues from Lagash.[49]](File:Man_of_Lagash,_circa_2270_BCE_(portrait).jpg)
_and_an_inscription_from_Entemena,_ruler_of_Lagash,_circa_2430_BC,_chlorite,_Pergamon_Museum,_Berlin.jpg)
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