This article is about the relations with the People's Republic of China. For the relations with the Republic of China, before and after the communist takeover of mainland China in 1949, see Holy See–Taiwan relations.
There are no official bilateral relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Holy See. The Holy See instead recognizes the Republic of China (Taiwan) as the representative of China ever since the establishment of relations with the ROC government in 1942.
Relations between the Holy See and the PRC have been strained over various issues, especially the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) policy of restricting religious activities and the appointment of Catholic bishops in mainland China. There have been attempts to improve China-Holy See relations, with an agreement signed in September 2018 between the PRC and the Holy See allowing the pope to appoint and veto bishops approved by the CCP. The agreement was renewed for another two years in October 2020. However, in 2022, the Vatican has accused the government for violating the terms of the agreement with the appointment of a diocese not recognised by the Holy See.
Framework
The Beijing government has set two conditions for reestablishing the relations: that the Holy See "not interfere in religious matters in China" and that, in line with Beijing's One China principle, it break the ties with the Taipei government. Such ties were established after the expulsion of Archbishop Riberi, and have been maintained at the level of chargé d'affaires ever since the United Nations' recognition of the Beijing government as the government of China.[1] The Holy See has indicated that it would have no difficulty about the second condition, but requires discussion about the concrete meaning of the first.[2]
A recurring issue is the procedure for appointing Catholicbishops in mainland China.[3]: 180 This is the most important issue in the bilateral relationship from the perspective of the Vatican.[3]: 191 Since the 1950s, the Chinese government's position is that bishops in China should be elected by Chinese Catholics through the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association.[3]: 180 The Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association is part of the United Front system.[3]: 180 Through this process, the Communist Party has ultimate control over the appointment of Bishops.[3]: 180 The Vatican's position is that the appointment of bishops is the prerogative of the Pope.[3]: 180 By the terms of the canon law of the Catholic Church, the Chinese bishops and people who actively participate in their ordination would be automatically excommunicated, a result called latae sententiae.[3]: 184 The Vatican has never announced any such excommunications.[3]: 184 Instead, the Vatican describes the ordination of the Chinese bishops as valid but illicit.[3]: 184 This means that in the Vatican's view, the Chinese bishops are in fact bishops, but the process through which they are appointed is sinful.[3]: 184 In 2018, the Chinese government and the Holy See reached a provisional agreement on the appointment of bishops.[3]: 180 The provisional agreement was renewed in 2022 and 2024.
During the Chinese Civil War, Pope Pius XII forbade Chinese Catholics from joining the Communist Party or participating in its activities.[3]: 183
In summer 1949, the Communist forces captured the Nationalist capital, Nanjing.[3]: 183 The Nationalist government retreated to Guangzhou.[3]: 183 Although most of the diplomatic corps in Nanjing also went to Guangzhou, the Papal ambassador (the Internuncio) remained in Nanjing.[3]: 183 Pius XII instructed all Chinese bishops to remain in place.[3]: 183
In 1950, the Holy See stated that participation in certain CCP-related organizations would result in excommunication from the Church.[4]: 33 In response, initiatives including Fr. Wang Liangzuo's "Guangyuan Declaration of Catholic Self-Reformation" gained support from Chinese Catholics.[4]: 33 In turn, apostolic nuncio Antonio Riberi circulated a letter denouncing such proposed reforms, and in March 1951 Fr. Li Weiguang and a group of 783 priests, nuns, and lay Catholics signed a declaration opposing what they viewed as Vatican interference and Western imperialism.[4]: 33 Throughout 1950 and 1951, the People's Republic of China put pressure on the Vatican by threatening a breakaway of "independent Catholics", but many priests opposed the movement, and Zhou Enlai sought a middle ground.[5] A deadly controversy was then manufactured: a priest working at the Holy See internunciature (legation) had thrown out an old 1930s-era mortar in a trash pile out of his home. A businessman named Antonio Riva discovered the mortar and took a non-functioning piece of it back to his house to display as an antique. When CCP officials saw Riva's curio in his home, they arrested him for conspiracy to assassinate Mao Zedong, which Riva denied. Riva was executed and the Holy See's diplomatic mission was banished from the country for "espionage".[6]Tarcisio Martina, the regional apostolic prefect, was sentenced to life in prison[7] and died in 1961, while four other "conspirators" were given shorter sentences.[8]
The PRC broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1951, deporting the apostolic nuncio to British Hong Kong.[4]: 33 The CCP framed these actions in terms of Chinese Catholics reclaiming their church in the context of broader opposition to Western imperialism.[4]: 33
The Catholic Church in China developed into two communities.[3]: 184 The "Patriotic" Church operates with approval of Chinese authorities and the "Underground" Church which professes loyalty to the Pope.[3]: 184 "Underground" does not mean the underground church is secret (the community mostly operates openly) but refers to its lack of official approval and lack of official support.[3]: 185
In 1978, the Vatican permitted the underground church to ordain new bishops without Vatican approval (Vatican approval is normally required for ordination).[3]: 185 In 1989, the underground church organized a bishop's conference.[3]: 185 Shortly thereafter, the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association established a bishop's conference.[3]: 185 The Vatican recognizes neither.[3]: 185
On 1 October 2000, Pope John Paul II recognized 120 Chinese Catholics killed during the 19th century and the Boxer Rebellion as martyrs.[3]: 188 In the view of the PRC, these Catholics had served the interests of foreign imperialism.[3]: 188 With John Paul II's announcement occurring on China's National Day, the government viewed the move by the Vatican as offensive and protested to the Vatican.[3]: 188
Approximately one year later, John Paul II sent a message to a conference commemorating Matteo Ricci's arrival in Beijing.[3]: 188 John Paul II wrote that he regretted the behavior of those who "may have given the impression of a lack of respect and esteem for the Chinese people on the part of the Catholic Church".[3]: 188 John Paul II asked for "forgiveness and understanding of those who may have felt hurt in such actions on the part of Christians".[3]: 188 In China, these remarks were interpreted as the first apology by an imperialist power for its historical actions in China.[3]: 188 The Chinese government also interpreted the remarks as indicating that the Vatican wished to improve relations.[3]: 188
In Spring 2005, ROC President Chen Shui-bian attended the funeral of Pope John Paul II.[3]: 189 According to academic Peter Moody, Chen apparently attended on his own initiative, not the Vatican's invitation.[3]: 189 The PRC protested Chen's attendance, describing it as "an opportunity to engage in secessionist activity".[3]: 189
2007 letter to Chinese Catholics
The Holy See made efforts in 2007 to create formal ties with the PRC.[9]Theodore McCarrick had been an envoy as part of such efforts.[10] High-ranking bishops in the Roman Catholic Church implied that such a diplomatic move was possible,[11] predicated on the PRC granting more freedom of religion[12] and interfering less in the hierarchy of the church in mainland China.[13]
In May 2007, Pope Benedict XVI wrote an open letter to all Chinese Catholics, stating that there is one Catholic Church in China and that despite the two communities (i.e. the "Patriotic" Church and the "Underground" Church) there is no schism between them.[3]: 185 Benedict XVI stated that sacraments performed by the priests not in unity with the Vatican were valid but also illicit.[3]: 185 He stated that the Catholic Church accepts the legitimacy of the civil authorities in secular matters and that the Pope has authority in ecclesial matters, and therefore the involvement of the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association in the appointment of bishops (and its bishops conference) violated Catholic doctrine.[3]: 185 The letter also removed the permission granted by the Vatican in 1978 to the Underground church to appoint bishops without Vatican approval.[3]: 185
In September 2007, the appointment of Father Joseph Li Shan by the PRC authorities was said to be "tacitly approved" by the Vatican.[14] In May 2008, the China Philharmonic Orchestra from mainland China performed a concert for the Pope inside the Vatican, prompting analysts to speak of a "growing rapprochement" between the two countries.[15] On 8 April 2011, the Financial Times reported that Baron Von Pfetten organized the first major breakthrough discussion at leadership level during a three days closed door seminar in his French château where a senior Chinese visiting delegation met with Monseigneur Balestrero the Holy See Undersecretary for Relations with States.[16]
Papacy of Francis
In March 2013, ROC President Ma Ying-jeou attended the inauguration of Pope Francis.[3]: 189 The PRC protested and, according to academic Peter Moody, apparently boycotted the event as a result.[3]: 189 The Vatican stated that no specific invitations had been sent to any country and that "No one is privileged, no one is refused, everyone is welcome if they say they are coming".[3]: 189
Francis, Pope since March 2013, said in a news media interview that he wished to visit China and improve the China-Holy See relationship.[17] It was also reported that on a Papal visit to South Korea in August 2014 China opened up its airspace to the Pope's plane, and while crossing the Chinese airspace the Pope sent a telegram expressing his "best wishes" to the Chinese people.[18]
2018 Holy See–China agreement
In January 2018, the Church was close to negotiating a deal with China that allows China to have more control over the underground churches and allows the Vatican to have more control over the appointment of bishops. While this did not amount to the establishment of formal diplomatic ties, this was seen as a huge step towards formal recognition.[19] However, Cardinal Joseph Zen Ze-kiun, the former Bishop of Hong Kong, regarded the warming of diplomatic relationships as selling out the Catholic Church in China, as the process involves the resignation of several bishops of the underground church.[20][21] A vigil was held by the Justice and Peace Commission of the Hong Kong Catholic Diocese in response from 12 to 13 February in St Bonaventure Church.[22]
On 22 September 2018, the Chinese government and the Vatican signed a historic agreement concerning the appointment of bishops in China.[23] Described by the parties as a "provisional agreement", the agreement's text itself has not been disclosed.[3]: 191 China's foreign ministry said that the agreement works to maintain communications and improve relations between the parties.[23] They did not establish diplomatic relations and the Vatican maintained diplomatic ties with the Republic of China on Taiwan.[24] Vatican spokesman Greg Burke described the agreement as "not political but pastoral, allowing the faithful to have bishops who are in communion with Rome but at the same time recognized by Chinese authorities."[23][25] While the agreement states that China will recommend bishops before they are appointed by the pope,[25] it also stipulates that the pope has authority to veto a bishop China recommends.[26]
Francis then approved seven bishops who had been appointed by Beijing, after withdrawing Church censures against those six and one recently deceased bishop, who had all received episcopal consecration without papal approval.[27][28] Francis also dismissed one of the Underground Church bishops and demoted another.[3]: 191
On 23 September, the Catholic Church in China pledged to remain loyal to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).[29] On 26 September, in a letter to Chinese Catholics, Pope Francis wrote:[30]
On the civil and political level, Chinese Catholics must be good citizens, loving their homeland and serving their country with diligence and honesty, to the best of their ability. On the ethical level, they should be aware that many of their fellow citizens expect from them a greater commitment to the service of the common good and the harmonious growth of society as a whole. In particular, Catholics ought to make a prophetic and constructive contribution born of their faith in the kingdom of God. At times, this may also require of them the effort to offer a word of criticism, not out of sterile opposition, but for the sake of building a society that is more just, humane and respectful of the dignity of each person.
According to Willy Wo-Lap Lam, the agreement reflects the long-standing desire of the Chinese government to end the Holy See's recognition of the government in Taiwan, even as the CCP general secretaryXi Jinping continues the campaign, launched in the spring of 2018, to increase control of foreign religious institutions.[31] In October 2018, local Chinese government officials destroyed two Marian shrines, one in Shanxi and one in Guizhou.[32]
While some have raised concerns that China was no longer enforcing the terms of the 2018 agreement,[33] both parties extended the agreement in October 2020 for two more years.[34] In July 2022, Pope Francis stated that he hoped the Provisional Agreement would be renewed in October 2022, describing the agreement as "moving well." As of July 2022, seven bishops before 2018 were brought into communion with the Vatican and only six new bishops have been appointed under the 2018 agreement.[35]
In October 2022, the agreement was renewed for another two years.[36] In November 2022, the Vatican accused the Chinese government of violating the terms of the agreement. A bishop of another district, Giovanni Peng Weizhao, was installed as auxiliary bishop in Jiangxi, which is not recognized as a diocese by the Vatican.[37][38] In April 2023, Bishop Shen Bin, formerly Bishop of Haimen, was installed in the Diocese of Shanghai, with the Vatican learning of the appointment only a few days before.[39]
In October 2024, the agreement was renewed for another four years.[40][41]
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