Tromsø lies in Northern Norway. The 2,521 km2 (973 sq mi) municipality is the 21st largest by area out of the 357 municipalities in Norway. Tromsø is the 12th-most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 78,745. The municipality's population density is 31.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (81/sq mi) and its population has increased by 10% over the previous 10-year period.[7][8] It is the largest urban area in Northern Norway and the third largest north of the Arctic Circle anywhere in the world (following Murmansk and Norilsk). The center of the city of Tromsø is located on the island of Tromsøya, but the urban area also encompasses part of the nearby mainland and part of the island Kvaløya. Tromsø is 350 km (217 mi) north of the Arctic Circle. Tromsøya is connected to the mainland by the Tromsø Bridge and the Tromsøysund Tunnel, and to the island of Kvaløya by the Sandnessund Bridge.
The municipality is milder than most settlements on the same latitude, due to the effect of the westerlies reaching this far north, as well as the North Atlantic Drift, a branch of the Gulf Stream. Tromsø's latitude of just below 70°N renders annual midnight suns and polar nights depending on the season.
The city centre contains the highest number of old wooden houses in Northern Norway, the oldest dating from 1789. Tromsø is a cultural hub for the region, with several festivals taking place in the summer. Due to its location, many countries had consulates or missions in Tromsø in the 1990s.[9][further explanation needed]
The city of Tromsø is named after the island of Tromsøya, on which it stands. The last element of the city's name comes from "island" (Norwegian: øy, Danish: ø), but the etymology of the first element is uncertain. Several theories exist. One theory holds "Troms-" is derived from the old (uncompounded) name of the island (Old Norse: Trums). Several islands and rivers in Norway have the name Tromsa, and the names of these are probably derived from the word straumr, which means "(strong) current". (The original form must then have been Strums, for the missing s, see Indo-European s-mobile.) Another theory holds that Tromsøya was originally called Lille Tromsøya (Little Tromsøya) because of its proximity to the much bigger island today called Kvaløya, that according to this theory, was earlier called "Store Tromsøya" due to a characteristic mountain known as Tromma (the Drum).[10][self-published source] The mountain's name in Sámi, Rumbbučohkka, is identical in meaning, and it is said to have been a sacred mountain for the Sámi in pre-Christian times.[11]
The Sámi name of the island, Romsa,[12] is assumed to be a loan from Norse, but according to the phonetical rules of the Sami language, the frontal t has disappeared from the name.[citation needed] However, an alternative form - Tromsa - is in informal use. A theory holds that the Norwegian name of Tromsø derives from the Sámi name, though this theory lacks an explanation for the meaning of Romsa. A common misunderstanding is that Tromsø's Sámi name is Romssa with a double "s". This, however, is the accusative and genitive form of the noun used when, for example, writing "Tromsø Municipality" (Romssa suohkan). In Finnish, however, the word is written with a double "s": Tromssa.
The area has been inhabited since the end of the last ice age. Archeological excavations in Tønsvika, have turned up artefacts and remains of buildings estimated to be 9,000 to 10,000 years old.[13][14][15]
Middle Ages: a fortress on the frontier
Hoard of Viking jewellery found in Tromsø dating from 7–8th Centuries AD now in the British Museum.[16]
The area's rich Norse and Sámi heritage is well documented. The Norse chieftain Ohthere, who lived during the 890s, is assumed to have inhabited the southernmost reaches of today's Tromsø municipality. He described himself as living "furthest to the North of all Norwegians" with areas north of this being populated by Sámi.[17] An Icelandic source (Rimbegla) from the 12th century also describes the fjord Malangen in the south of today's Tromsø municipality as a border between Norse and Sámi coastal settlements during that part of the Middle Ages, however, Archaeological finds show that the Vikings have been present on the main island itself. In a burial/settlement near today's airport, a sword and other combat tools have been found, as well as household tools typical for the Norwegians [18] In addition, one of Northern Norway's largest Viking treasures is found on the island itself.[19] There has also been extensive Sámi settlement on the coast south of this 'border' as well as scattered Norse settlements north of Malangen—for example, both Sámi and Norse Iron Age (0–1050 AD) remains have been found on southern Kvaløya.[20][21]
The first church on the island of Tromsøya was erected in 1252. Ecclesia Sanctae Mariae de Trums juxta paganos ("The Church of Saint Mary in Troms near the Heathens"—the nominal "heathens" being the Sámi), was built during the reign of King Hákon Hákonarson.[22] At the time, it was the northernmost church in the world. Around the same time a turf rampart was built to protect the area against raids from Karelia and Russia.
Tromsø was not just a Norwegian outpost in an area mainly populated by the Sámi, but also a frontier city towards Russia; the Novgorod state had the right to tax the Sámi along the coast to Lyngstuva and inland to the Skibotn River or possibly the Målselv River, whereas Norway was allowed to tax areas east to - and including - the Kola Peninsula.[20] During the next five hundred years Norway's border with Russia and the limits of Norwegian settlement would be pushed eastwards to Sør-Varanger Municipality, making Tromsø lose its character as a "frontier town".[23][self-published source]
1700s and 1800s: the "Paris of the north"
During the 17th century, while Denmark–Norway was solidifying its claim to the northern coast of Scandinavia, the redoubtSkansen was built. Despite only being home to around 80 people, Tromsø was issued its city charter on 20 June 1794 by King Christian VII.[24][25] This coincided with, and was a direct consequence of, the abolition of the city of Bergen's centuries-old monopoly on the trade in cod. Tromsø quickly rose in importance. The Diocese of Hålogaland was created in 1804, with the first bishop being Mathias Bonsak Krogh.[26] The city was established as a municipality 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law).
Arctic hunting, from Novaya Zemlya to Canada, started up around 1820. By 1850, Tromsø was the major centre of Arctic hunting, overtaking the former centre of Hammerfest.[27][28] Tromsø had trading contacts with both Central Europe and Russia (specifically Arkhangelsk) during this time, the latter of which resulted in the development of the pidgin language Russenorsk.[29][30]
In 1848, the teacher training college was also moved from Trondenes Municipality (near current-day Harstad) to Tromsø, with part of its mission being to educate Sámi scholars - there was a quota ensuring that Sámi gained access.[31] The teacher college was followed by the Tromsø Museum in 1872,[32] and the Mack Brewery in 1877.[33]
During the 19th century, Tromsø became known as the "Paris of the North". How this nickname came into being is uncertain, but the reason is generally assumed to be that people in Tromsø appeared far more sophisticated than visitors from the south typically expected.[28][34]
Early 1900s: exploration and war
Photochrom print from Tromsø, 1900
By the end of the 19th century, Tromsø had become a major Arctic trade centre from which many Arctic expeditions originated. Explorers like Roald Amundsen, Umberto Nobile and Fridtjof Nansen made use of the know-how in Tromsø on the conditions in the Arctic, and often recruited their crews in the city.[35][36] The Northern lights observatory was founded in 1927.
When Germany invaded Norway in 1940, Tromsø served briefly as the seat of the Norwegian government. General Carl Gustav Fleischer arrived in Tromsø on 10 April 1940 after flying in terrible conditions from Vadsø. From Tromsø he issued orders for total civilian and military mobilisation and declared Northern Norway a theatre of war. Fleischer's strategic plan was to first wipe out the German forces at Narvik and then transfer his division to Nordland to meet a German advance from Trøndelag. The Germans eventually captured all of Norway, after allied support had been withdrawn, although they encountered fierce resistance from the Finnmark-based Alta Battalion at Narvik. Tromsø escaped the war unscathed, although the German battleship Tirpitz was sunk by RAF bombers[37] during Operation Catechism off the Tromsøy island on 12 November 1944, killing close to 1,000 German sailors.[38][39]
At the end of the war, the city received thousands of refugees from Finnmark county and the northern areas of Troms - areas which had been devastated by German forces using scorched earth tactics in expectation of a Red Armyoffensive.[40]
Late 1900s – today: rapid expansion
Expansion after World War II has been rapid. The rural Tromsøysund Municipality and Ullsfjord Municipality, and most of Hillesøy Municipality, were merged with Tromsø on 1 January 1964, creating today's Tromsø municipality and almost tripling Tromsø's population - from 12,430 to 32,664.[41] In addition, the population growth has been strong, with at times more than 1,000 new Tromsøværinger (residents of Tromsø) annually. The population of Tromsø municipality today is 68,239, and the urban area, Norway's ninth most populous, is home to 58,486 people.[42] This excludes most of the city's students, however, who often do not change their address when moving to Tromsø.
A major development was the opening of Tromsø Airport in 1964, situated on the main island, and in 1972 the University of Tromsø was opened, at the time one of four universities in Norway and the only one serving the northern half of the country. A local teacher's college and museum were eventually incorporated into the university. The Norwegian Polar Institute was moved to Tromsø from Oslo in 1998. More recently, the university has expanded further through two mergers, first with University College Tromsø in 2009 and then with University College Finnmark in 2013.[43]
Municipal history
The city of Tromsø was established as an independent municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). The city was completely surrounded by the Tromsøe landdistrikt (the rural municipality of Tromsø / later renamed Tromsøysund Municipality), but they were governed separately. As the city grew in size, areas were added to the city from the rural district.[44]
On 1 January 1861, an area of Tromsøysund Municipality (population: 110) was transferred to the city of Tromsø. On 1 January 1873, an unpopulated area of Tromsøysund Municipality was transferred to the city. On 1 July 1915, another area of Tromsøysund Municipality (population: 512) was merged into the city of Tromsø. On 1 January 1955, the Bjerkaker area on Tromsøya (population: 1,583) was transferred from Tromsøysund Municipality to the city of Tromsø.[44]
On 1 January 2020, the municipality became a part of the newly created Troms og Finnmark county, which replaced the old Troms county. On 1 January 2024, Troms og Finnmark county was divided and the municipality once again became part of Troms county.[45]
Coat of arms
A relief of the arms on a façade of Storgata 65 building known as Rødbanken
The coat of arms (current version) was granted on 22 July 1983, although a variation of these arms has been in use since 1870. The official blazon is "Azure, a reindeertrippantargent" (Norwegian: I blått en gående sølv rein).[46] This means the arms have a blue field (background) and the charge is a reindeer. The reindeer has a tincture of argent which means it is commonly colored white, but if it is made out of metal, then silver is used. It is often surmounted by a mural crown with five or four turrets. The municipal authority currently uses a stylised rendering drawn by Hallvard Trætteberg (1898–1987) and adopted by royal resolution on 24 September 1941. The idea for a coat of arms for Tromsø was presented by A. T. Kaltenborn in 1855 and the coat of arms was first used in connection with the Industry and Crafts Exhibition in Tromsø in 1870. Over time, the background colour has been changed between blue and red. At one point it also used a natural landscape in the background. Although reindeer played little or no role in the city, Tromsø was the administrative center of the vast surrounding areas in the county were reindeer herding was common in this part of Northern Norway.[47][48][49]
Tromsø experiences a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classificationDfc, TrewarthaEolo) as winter temperatures are just cold enough to qualify and the summer season is short. However, precipitation amount and pattern, with maximum precipitation in autumn and winter, as well as lack of permafrost, are atypical for subarctic areas and more typical for oceanic climates. Owing to the ice-free Norwegian Sea and the westerlies bringing the mild air ashore, winter temperatures in Tromsø are moderate and extremely mild for the latitude.
Summers are rather cool, sometimes cloudy and rainy, and sometimes sunny, often with large variations from year to year and from month to month, giving a completely different experience, all depending on the weather pattern. This variability is also visible in sunhours, which has been recorded since 1961: In July 1980 Tromsø recorded 430 sunhours, which is still the national record for sunniest month ever. However, July 1989 only recorded 91 sunhours. June has ranged from just 58 sunhours in June 2018 to 395 sunhours in June 1971 and also June 2002. Tromsø has also recorded the sunniest spring month in Norway with 381 sunhours in May 2013.[52] The highest temperature recorded at the met office 100 m amsl is 30.2 °C (86.4 °F) in July 1972. Tromsø recorded its first "tropical night" with overnight low 20.8 °C (69.4 °F) July 30, 2018.
Tromsø has reputation of accumulating a lot of snow in winter, but on the streets of the city ice often prevails, especially in the first half of the winter. Tromsø's snowfall pattern is quite erratic and varies substantially between different winters.[53] Thaws with rain in the polar night mid-winter are not uncommon, which melts or wets existing snow, often followed by chilly windy Arctic blasts, creating dangerous ice driving and walking conditions. It is common to see Tromsø inhabitants walking with spikes in their shoes and almost all cars use studded tires.[54] The all-time record for snow depth was set on 29 April 1997, when the meteorological station on top of Tromsøya recorded 240 centimetres (94.5 in) of snow on the ground.[52] In an average winter, Tromsø sees 160 days with at least 25 centimetres (10 in) of snow on the ground (1970–2000 average, 100 meters above sea level).[55]
The lowest temperature ever recorded is −18.4 °C (−1.1 °F) in February 1966.[52] That is extremely mild for a location this far north, as it is about the same as the record cold for the U.S. state of Florida — about 40 degrees latitude further south. At the airport the all-time low is −20.1 °C (−4.2 °F) in February 1985.[56] The average date for the last overnight freeze (low below 0 °C (32.0 °F)) in spring is 17 May[57] and average date for first freeze in autumn is 3 October (1981-2010 average)[58] giving a frost-free season of 138 days.
The "midnight sun" is above the horizon from 19 May to 27 July (71 days), and the period with continuous night lasts a bit shorter, polar night from 28 November to 14 January (48 days). The sunniest January (1985) recorded just 9 sunhours, while the sunniest February saw 97 sunhours (2018).
Despite mild winters, snowfall can happen almost any time of the year except from July to mid-September; in 2019, snowfall was registered on 29 June.[59]
Outside the city, large areas in the municipality are at some altitude and above the treeline with an alpine tundraclimate (ET or ETh). The islands to the west at the outer seaboard are milder in winter like Måsvik, making this part of the municipality a (if the −3.0 °C (26.6 °F) isotherm is used) subpolar oceanic climate (Cfc) zone.
Recent years have seen warming. The recent normal period 1991-2020 shows that the part of the city at low altitude has winters so mild that melting of snow is more likely also in mid-winter; Tromsø-Holt (20 m) coldest month (February) mean is −2.4 °C (27.7 °F); subpolar oceanic if the −3.0 °C (26.6 °F) isotherm is used.
Climate data for Tromsø, 1991–2020 normals, (100 m, extremes 1920–present)
In the past years, Tromsø has been experiencing more rain during the winter season. The winter season has shortened by 17 days, and even Oslo, the capital of Norway, is experiencing colder winters than Tromsø despite the latitude. Due to climate change, the snow has been melting mid-winter. It is expected that Tromsø's climate changes from a boreal climate to a humid continental climate by 2100.[66]
Light and darkness
The Northern Lights near TromsøEarly afternoon during the polar night in TromsøTromsø in midnight sun in July19th century view of Tromsø by Peder Balke
The midnight sun occurs from about 18 May to 26 July, but mountains block the view of it for a few days, meaning that one can see the midnight sun from about 21 May to 21 July. Owing to Tromsø's high latitude, twilight is long, meaning there is no true night between March 27 and September 17.
The sun remains below the horizon during the polar night from about 26 November to 15 January, but due to the mountains, the sun is not visible from 21 November to 21 January. The return of the sun is an occasion for celebration. However, because of the twilight, there is some daylight for a couple of hours even around midwinter, often with bluish light, allowing for normal day/night cycles during the winter. The nights shorten quickly. By 21 February, the sun is above the horizon from 7:45 am to 4:10 pm and, by 1 April, is above the horizon from 5:50 am to 7:50 pm (daylight saving time). However, if one were to include astronomical twilight as "not night", then Tromsø only has 13 hours and 32 minutes of night on the winter solstice.
The combination of snow cover and sunshine often creates intense light conditions from late February until the snow melts in the lowland (usually late April), and sunglasses are essential when skiing. Because of these diametrically different light conditions in winter, Norwegians often divide it into two seasons: Mørketid (polar night) and Seinvinter (late winter).
It is possible to observe the aurora borealis (northern lights) from Tromsø, as northern Norway is located in the auroral zone. As it is always light in the summer, no aurora is visible between late April and mid August. Additionally, due to the coastal location, Tromsø is often subject to cloudy conditions, which prevent aurorae being seen, even if they are present.
The compact city centre has the biggest concentration of historic wooden houses north of Trondheim, and they co-exist with modern architecture. The houses date from 1789 to 1904, when building wooden houses was banned in the city centre, as in several other Norwegian cities. The oldest house in Tromsø is Skansen, built in 1789 on the remains of a 13th-century turf rampart.[67][68]
Arctic Cathedral in Tromsø
The Polar Museum, Polarmuseet, situated in a wharf house from 1837, presents Tromsø's past as a centre for Arctic hunting and starting point for Arctic expeditions. Tromsø Cathedral, Norway's only wooden cathedral, built in 1861, is located in the middle of the city, and so is the small Catholic church Vår Frue ("Our Lady"). Northern Europe's oldest cinema still in use, Verdensteatret, was built in 1915–16. The cinema has large wall paintings, made by the local artist Sverre Mack in 1921, which picture scenes from Norwegian folk lore and fairy tales.[69]
The Arctic Cathedral, a modern church built in 1965,[70] is situated on the mainland, facing the sound and city centre. The church, in reality a parish church and not a cathedral, was drawn by Jan Inge Hovig. The Polaria aquarium and experience centre from 1998 is a short walk south from the city centre. The Tromsø Museum is a university museum, presenting culture and nature of North Norway. The museum also displays the Arctic-alpine botanic garden, the world's northernmost botanical garden. A cable car goes up to mount Storsteinen, 420 metres (1,380 feet) above sea level, with a panoramic view over Tromsø. The mountain Tromsdalstinden, 1,238 metres (4,062 ft), on the mainland, which is easily spotted from the city centre, is also a major landmark. At the top of Tromsøya is a lake called Prestvannet.
The municipal council(Kommunestyre) of Tromsø is made up of 43 representatives that are elected for four year terms. Tromsø introduced so-called "parliamentary rule" in 2011. The Municipal council elects an executive body, byrådet ("the city council"), consisting of six byråder ("city councilors"). In theory, these are equivalent to the cabinet members of a parliamentary government. The tables below show the current and historical composition of the council by political party.
The mayor (Norwegian: ordfører) of Tromsø is the political leader of the municipality and the chairperson of the municipal council. Here is a list of people who have held this position:
Coastal Seafood Center in Northern Norway (Norwegian: Kystens Hus)[98]
Tromsø is one of the largest fishing ports in Norway. Secondary to fishing, the University of Tromsø is a center for Arctic research. Tourism has exploded as an alternative economic resource in recent decades. There are now many direct flights from all major Asian countries.
In 2021, the US Navy opened facilities to service American submarines at the port, after undergoing a significant expansion in 2020.[99]
Demographics
Historical population
Year
1845
1855
1865
1875
1891
1900
1910
1920
1930
1946
1951
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2024
Pop.
2,011
2,958
4,073
5,443
6,000
6,996
7,633
10,071
10,336
10,990
10,940
12,283
38,094
45,833
50,548
59,145
67,305
76,974
78,745
±% p.a.
—
+3.93%
+3.25%
+2.94%
+0.61%
+1.72%
+0.88%
+2.81%
+0.26%
+0.38%
−0.09%
+1.29%
+11.98%
+1.87%
+0.98%
+1.58%
+1.30%
+1.35%
+0.57%
Note: The municipal borders were changed in 1964, causing a significant change in the population. Source: Statistics Norway[100][101] and Norwegian Historical Data Centre[102]
More than 100 nationalities are represented in the population. Among the more prominent minorities are the Sami, Russians, and Finns, both the local Kvens (descendants of 19th-century Finnish immigrants) and recent immigrants from Finland proper.[103] The world's northernmost mosque is to be found in Tromsø. Our Lady Catholic church is the seat of the world's northernmost Catholic Bishop, who leads the Roman Catholic Territorial Prelature of Tromsø. Although the local Catholic population is only 350 strong, Pope John Paul II visited this small church and stayed as a guest of the bishop in 1989.[104]
As noted in the history section, the Tromsø area has long been home to Sámi culture. The assimilation of the Coastal Sámi, however, led to the local Sámi culture becoming increasingly invisible in the Tromsø area during the 20th century. Today there is a Sami kindergarten and Sami language classes in certain schools of Tromsø. There have been attempts at countering the decline of the Sámi language through the establishment of a Sami language centre in Lakselvbukt in the Ullsfjorden area.[106] Tromsø Municipality has generally displayed a positive attitude to the indigenous minority culture. For example, the municipality has arranged the Sámi People's Day;[107] signs at the university are bilingual; and when the city made its bid for the Winter Olympics the Sámi name of Tromsø, Romsa, was included in the proposed logo for the event along with a traditional Sámi symbol as its main visual element.[108]
2011 language controversy
In 2011, the role of Sámi culture in Tromsø became controversial. The Municipal Board had applied for Tromsø to join the Sámi Language Administrative Area. This would have entailed giving equal space to selected Sámi toponyms on signposts, allowing Sámi-speakers to communicate in their language with local authorities, and making means available from the Sámi Parliament for officials to learn Sámi. Political parties, such as the FrP, Venstre and Høyre, opposed the decision and made it a part of their election campaign to reverse it, claiming that, as "a Norwegian city", Tromsø was not required to display Sámi toponyms along with Norwegian ones or make Sámi an official language along with Norwegian.[109] The parties opposing a larger role for Sámi culture in Tromsø won the election and reversed the application. It has been claimed that the issue has "divided" Tromsø's inhabitants between those who see Sámi culture as naturally belonging there and those who see it as alien to the area.[110][111] During and after the election campaign, pro-Sámi politicians received threats and people wearing traditional Sámi garb claim to have been subjected to verbal abuse.[112][113] In June 2013 the municipality nonetheless entered into a cooperation agreement with the Sámi Parliament which is intended to strengthen Sami language education and Sami culture in Tromsø.[114]
Culture
Perspektivet MuseumHålogaland theatre
Being the largest city in Northern Norway, the city of Tromsø is a cultural centre for the municipality and its surrounding region. It gained some international attention when on 11 June 2005 hosted one of six 46664 concerts, designed to put work concerning HIV/AIDS on the international agenda. Torbjørn Brundtland and Svein Berge of the electronica duo Röyksopp and Lene Marlin grew up and started their careers in Tromsø.
The Tromsø techno scene is the origin of many of Norway's most important artists in electronic music, and Tromsø was a leading city at the early stages of the house and techno scene in Norway in the late 1980s.[115]Röyksopp and the ambient electronic musician Geir Jennsen, known as Biosphere, are both from the town.
Both the Tromsø International Film Festival and Nordlysfestivalen (lit. 'the Aurora Borealis Festival'), a classical music festival, are arranged in January. The end of that month is marked by the 'Day of the Sun' (Soldagen), when the sun finally appears above the horizon after the Polar Night, which is celebrated, mainly by children. The International Day of the Sami People is celebrated at the University of Tromsø and the city hall on 6 February every year. Tromsø's Latin American Festival, No Siesta Fiesta, is held at the end of February. It started in 2007 and showcases "the best of Latin America" in Northern Norway with film, dance, music, art, seminars, debates, markets, and a street Samba parade. Every autumn the Insomnia Festival for electronic music is hosted. It is one of the largest and most important festivals for electronic music and techno culture in Norway.
The Bukta Tromsø Open Air Festival, held in June and July, is a popular music festival. The Bukta festival is mainly a rock festival, but also features other kinds of modern music. The festival takes place in Telegrafbukta, a park on the south-western part of the Tromsøya island. Other popular cultural summer events among the population of Tromsø is the Karlsøy festival and the Riddu Riddu festival, both held in the region surrounding the city.
Tromsø was selected by the Norwegian National Olympic Committee as Norway's candidate for the 2018 Winter Olympics. This would have made Tromsø the first city north of the Arctic Circle to host the games. There were plans to use ships as the media village. In October 2008 the NOC suspended Tromsø's bid, citing excessive costs.[119] From the southern to the northern tip of the island Tromsøya, there is a floodlit cross-country ski track. A ski jump is also situated on the island, close to the university. As of the spring of 2010, the city's first ice hockey arena has been open and is home to Tromsø Hockey, which plays in the Swedish Ice Hockey Association's League 3. Tromsø is also home to the most northern tennis club in Norway.
Tromsø signed a sister city agreement with Murmansk on 10 July 1972 and terminated it on 22 October 2022, after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.[130]
In popular culture
Since January 2024, Tromsø has the northernmost McDonald's in the world, taking the title from Rovaniemi, Finland.[131] It is also home to the northernmost location of many chains, such as Burger King and 7-Eleven.
Notes
^Erroneously, the Sámi name is often believed to be Romssa. This is because "Tromsø Municipality" is Romssa Suohkan. Romssa, however, is the genitive case, so that Romssa Suohkan translates to "the Municipality of Romsa".
^"Unike steinalderfunn" (in Norwegian Bokmål). nrk.no. 27 July 2011. Archived from the original on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
^Nikel, David (April 2019). "Tromsø and the high north". Norway (2nd ed.). Norway: Hachette Book Group. p. 326. ISBN978-1-64049-051-2. Archaeological excavations show the area around Tromsø has been inhabited since the Stone Age, with evidence of buildings up to 10,000 years old found.
^617 Squadron - The Operational Record Book 1943 - 1945 "617 Squadron - The Operational Record Book 1943 – 1945"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 4 August 2008. http://www.dambusters.org with additional information by Tobin Jones; Binx Publishing, Pevensey House, Sheep Street, Bicester. OX26 6JF. Acknowledgement is given to HMSO as holders of the copyright on the Operational Record Book
^Derry, T.K. (1972). A History of Modern Norway: 1814—1972. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN0-19-822503-2.
^Oehler, Christopher (25 August 2021). "Tromsø, Troms (Norway)". Flags of the World. Archived from the original on 20 May 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
^"Godkjenning av våpen og flagg". Lovdata.no (in Norwegian). Norges kommunal- og arbeidsdepartementet. 11 September 1983. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
^"Nordlysplanetariet" [Northern Lights planetarium]. Nordnorsk Vitensenter (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 28 December 2005. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
^"Kommunestyrevalget 1995"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo-Kongsvinger: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1996. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 September 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^"Kommunestyrevalget 1991"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo-Kongsvinger: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1993. Archived(PDF) from the original on 22 May 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^"Kommunestyrevalget 1987"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo-Kongsvinger: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1988. Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^"Kommunestyrevalget 1983"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo-Kongsvinger: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1984. Archived(PDF) from the original on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^"Kommunestyrevalget 1979"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1979. Archived(PDF) from the original on 29 September 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^"Kommunevalgene 1975"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1977. Archived(PDF) from the original on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^"Kommunevalgene 1972"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1973. Archived(PDF) from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^"Kommunevalgene 1967"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1967. Archived(PDF) from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^"Kommunevalgene 1963"(PDF) (in Norwegian). Oslo: Statistisk sentralbyrå. 1964. Archived(PDF) from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
^Informasjonstjenesten (2 February 2006). "Samefolkets dag i Tromsø" [Sámi People's Day in Tromsø]. Tromsø Kommune (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
فرانسيسكو مارتوس معلومات شخصية الميلاد 4 يناير 1984 (39 سنة)[1] ألاميديا الطول 1.81 م (5 قدم 11 1⁄2 بوصة) مركز اللعب مدافع الجنسية إسبانيا معلومات النادي النادي الحالي AE Prat [الإنجليزية] الرقم 20 مسيرة الشباب سنوات فريق 1993–2003 برشلونة المسيرة الاحت...
Dieser Artikel befasst sich mit der Stadt Hoya in Niedersachsen; für weitere Bedeutungen siehe Hoya (Begriffsklärung). Wappen Deutschlandkarte 52.806459.135963888888914Koordinaten: 52° 48′ N, 9° 8′ O Basisdaten Bundesland: Niedersachsen Landkreis: Nienburg/Weser Samtgemeinde: Grafschaft Hoya Höhe: 14 m ü. NHN Fläche: 8,42 km2 Einwohner: 3972 (31. Dez. 2022)[1] Bevölkerungsdichte: 472 Einwohner je km2 Postleitzahl: 27318...
Cet article ou cette section contient des informations sur des scrutins à venir. Il se peut que ces informations soient de nature spéculative et que leur teneur change considérablement alors que les événements approchent.La dernière modification de cette page a été faite le 2 novembre 2023 à 19:01. 2015-2016 Élections générales haïtiennes de 2023 119 sièges de la Chambre des députés20 des 30 sièges du Sénat de la République Parti haïtien Tèt Kale – Ann Valérie Tim...
UniversitasUniversità degli Studi di Cataniabahasa Latin: Siciliae Studium Generale or Siculorum GymnasiumJenisNegeriDidirikan1434RektorProf. Francesco BasileStaf administrasi1,623Jumlah mahasiswa66,235LokasiCatania, ItaliaTim olahragaCUS CataniaAfiliasiUNIMEDSitus webwww.unict.it/ Universitas Catania (bahasa Italia: Università degli Studi di Catania) adalah universitas yang terletak Catania, Sisilia. Universitas tersebut didirikan pada tahun 1434, dan merupakan universitas tertua d...
This is a list of the human spaceflight missions conducted by the Russian Federal Space Agency since 1992. All Russian human spaceflight missions thus far have been carried out using the Soyuz vehicle, and all visited either Mir or the International Space Station. The Russian Federal Space Agency was the successor to the Soviet space program. Numeration of the Soyuz flights therefore continues from previous Soviet Soyuz launches. For previous flights of the Soyuz and other crewed space vehicl...
تشمة حقي چشمه حقي - قرية - تقسيم إداري البلد إيران[1] المحافظة محافظة خوزستان المقاطعة مقاطعة أنديكا الناحية الناحية المركزية لمقاطعة أنديكا القسم الريفي قلعة خواجة إحداثيات 32°13′27″N 49°25′01″E / 32.22417°N 49.41694°E / 32.22417; 49.41694 السكان التعداد السكاني...
Bài viết này cần thêm chú thích nguồn gốc để kiểm chứng thông tin. Mời bạn giúp hoàn thiện bài viết này bằng cách bổ sung chú thích tới các nguồn đáng tin cậy. Các nội dung không có nguồn có thể bị nghi ngờ và xóa bỏ. (December 2013) 116 / 412Chang-dongSân ga (Tuyến 1)Bảng tên ga (Tuyến 1)Sân ga (Tuyến 1)Bảng tên ga (Tuyến 4)Tên tiếng HànHangul창동역Hanja倉洞驛Romaja quốc ngữChangdong-yeokMcCune...
American teacher and football, basketball and baseball coach George DenmanBiographical detailsBorn(1874-03-23)March 23, 1874New York, U.S.DiedJune 5, 1952(1952-06-05) (aged 78)Auburn, New York, U.S.Coaching career (HC unless noted)Football1901–1902Michigan AgriculturalBasketball1901–1903Michigan AgriculturalBaseball1902–1903Michigan Agricultural Head coaching recordOverall7–9–1 (football)11–0 (basketball)9–15–1 (baseball) George Edward Denman (March 23, 1874 – June 5, 1...
Johan VI kan verwijzen naar: Johan VI van Mecklenburg (ca. 1439-1474), hertog van Mecklenburg (1464-1474) Johan VI van Oppersalm, graaf van Opper-Salm (1495-1499) Johan VI de Oude van Nassau-Dillenburg (1536-1606), graaf van Nassau-Dillenburg (1559-1606) Johan VI van Portugal (1767-1826), koning van Portugal (1816-1826) Zie ook Jan VI (doorverwijspagina) Johannes VI (doorverwijspagina) Bekijk alle artikelen waarvan de titel begint met Johan VI of met Johan VI in de ti...
1995 Indian filmKolangalDVD coverDirected byI. V. SasiWritten byR. N. R. Manohar (dialogues)Screenplay byI. V. SasiStory byHenryProduced byHenryStarringJayaramKushbooCinematographyV. JayaramEdited byK. NarayananMusic byIlaiyaraajaProductioncompanyCarolina FilmsRelease date 15 September 1995 (1995-09-15) Running time145 minutesCountryIndiaLanguageTamil Kolangal is a 1995 Indian Tamil-language drama film directed by I. V. Sasi. The film stars Jayaram and Kushboo. It was released ...
1976 film by Fred Schepisi This article is about the 1976 Australian film. For other films by this title, see Devil's Playground (disambiguation). The Devil's PlaygroundVideo coverDirected byFred SchepisiWritten byFred SchepisiProduced byFred SchepisiStarring Arthur Dignam Nick Tate Simon Burke CinematographyIan BakerEdited byBrian KavanaghMusic byBruce SmeatonProductioncompanyThe Film HouseDistributed by Fred Schepisi Umbrella Entertainment Release date 12 August 1976 (1976-08...
Babat–Djombang Stoomtram Maatschappij, N.V.Lokomotif milik BDSMIkhtisarKantor pusat Jombang, Jawa Timur, Hindia BelandaLokalKabupaten Lamongan dan Kabupaten JombangTanggal beroperasi1896–1916PenerusStaatsspoorwegen (lintas Babat–Jombang)TeknisLebar sepur1.067 mm (3 ft 6 in)Panjang jalur68,3 kilometer Babat–Djombang Stoomtram Maatschappij, N.V. (BDSM) adalah nama perusahaan kereta api di Hindia Belanda. Perusahaan ini mengoperasikan trem uap yang menghubungkan S...
Pierre Hermé Pierre Hermé en 2017Información personalNacimiento 20 de noviembre de 1961 (62 años)Colmar, Alto Rin, FranciaNacionalidad FrancesaInformación profesionalOcupación Pastelero y chocolateroSitio web www.pierreherme.comDistinciones Oficial de La Orden del Mérito Agrícola (1996)Caballero de la Orden Nacional de la Legión de Honor (2006)Comendador de las Artes y las Letras (2019)The Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette (2022) [edi...
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Great White discography – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Great White discographyGreat White in 2008Studio albums13Live albums9Compilation albums14Music videos19EPs4Singles27Tribute a...
Cárteles Unidos (English: United Cartels), also known as La Resistencia (English: The Resistance) is a Mexican criminal enforcer squad composed of well-trained gunmen from the Sinaloa Cartel, Gulf Cartel, La Familia Michoacana, and Knights Templar Cartel originally formed to expel the Los Zetas Cartel from the states of Michoacán and Jalisco.[1][2][3][4][5] However, Cárteles Unidos' current main rival has now become the Jalisco New Generation Cartel;...
Flow where fluid particles follow smooth paths in layers The velocity profile associated with laminar flow resembles a deck of cards. This flow profile of a fluid in a pipe shows that the fluid acts in layers that slide over one another. In fluid dynamics, laminar flow (/ˈlæmənər/) is characterized by fluid particles following smooth paths in layers, with each layer moving smoothly past the adjacent layers with little or no mixing.[1] At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow wit...
Political party in Japan New Liberal Club新自由クラブ Shin-jiyū-kurabuLeaderYōhei Kōno[1]Secretary-GeneralTakeo Nishioka[1]Founded25 June 1976[1]Dissolved15 August 1986[1]Split fromLiberal Democratic Party[1]Merged intoLiberal Democratic Party[1][2]IdeologyConservatism[2]Neoconservatism[2]Neoliberalism[2]Decentralization[1]Progressivism[3]Politics of JapanPolitical partiesEle...
Cet article concerne le film. Pour la série télévisée, voir L'Étoffe des héros (série télévisée). L’Étoffe des héros Données clés Titre original The Right Stuff Réalisation Philip Kaufman Scénario Philip Kaufmand'après Tom Wolfe Acteurs principaux Sam ShepardEd HarrisScott GlennDennis QuaidFred WardBarbara Hershey Sociétés de production The Ladd Company Pays de production États-Unis Genre Drame historique Durée 193 minutes Sortie 1983 Pour plus de détails, voir Fic...
Organic reaction involving the breakup and reassembly of alkene double bonds Olefin metathesis Reaction type Carbon-carbon bond forming reaction Identifiers Organic Chemistry Portal olefin-metathesis RSC ontology ID RXNO:0000280 Reaction scheme of the olefin metathesis - changing groups are colored In organic chemistry, olefin metathesis is an organic reaction that entails the redistribution of fragments of alkenes (olefins) by the scission and regeneration of carbon-carbon double bonds.[...
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